For many centuries, the main sources of knowledge about how the ancient Germans lived and what they did were the works of Roman historians and politicians: Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Julius Caesar, Tacitus, as well as some church writers. Along with reliable information, these books and notes contained conjectures and exaggerations. In addition, ancient authors did not always delve into the politics, history and culture of the barbarian tribes. They fixed mainly what “lay on the surface”, or what made the strongest impression on them. Of course, all these works give a pretty good idea of the life of the Germanic tribes at the turn of the era. However, in the course of later archaeological excavations, it was found that the ancient authors, describing the beliefs and life of the ancient Germans, missed a lot. Which, however, does not detract from their merits.
Origin and distribution of the Germanic tribes
Germanic tribes are Indo-European. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the Proto-Germanic language separated from the Proto-Indo-European, and the Germanic ethnos was formed in the 6th-1st centuriesBC e., although not definitively. The basins of the Oder, Rhine and Elbe rivers are recognized as the ancestral land of the Germanic peoples. There were a lot of tribes. They did not have a single name and for the time being did not realize their relationship with each other. It makes sense to list some of them. So, on the territory of modern Scandinavia lived Danes, Gauts and Svei. To the east of the Elbe River were the possessions of the Goths, Vandals and Burgundians. These tribes were not lucky: they suffered greatly from the invasion of the Huns, were scattered around the world and assimilated. And between the Rhine and the Elbe settled Teutons, Saxons, Angles, Batavians, Franks. They gave rise to modern Germans, British, Dutch, French. In addition to those mentioned, there were also Jutes, Frisians, Cherusci, Hermundurs, Cimbri, Suevi, Bastarna and many others. The ancient Germans migrated mainly from north to south, or rather - to the southwest, which threatened the Roman provinces. They also willingly developed the eastern (Slavic) lands.
The first mention of the Germans
The ancient world learned about warlike tribes in the middle of the 4th century BC. e. from the notes of the navigator Pythia, who ventured to travel to the shores of the North (German) Sea. Then the Germans loudly declared themselves at the end of the 2nd century BC. e.: the tribes of the Teutons and Cimbri, who left Jutland, fell upon Gaul and reached the Alpine Italy.
Gaius Marius managed to stop them, but from that moment on, the empire began to vigilantly monitor the activity of dangerous neighbors. In turn, the Germanic tribes began to unite in order tostrengthen your military power. In the middle of the 1st century BC. e. Julius Caesar defeated the Suebi during the Gallic War. The Romans reached the Elbe, and a little later - to the Weser. It was at this time that scientific works began to appear describing the life and religion of rebellious tribes. In them (with the light hand of Caesar) the term "Germans" began to be used. By the way, this is by no means a self-name. The origin of the word is Celtic. "German" is "a close living neighbor". The ancient tribe of the Germans, or rather its name - "Teutons", was also used by scientists as a synonym.
Germans and their neighbors
In the west and south, the Celts coexisted with the Germans. Their material culture was higher. Outwardly, the representatives of these nationalities were similar. The Romans often confused them, and sometimes even considered them to be one people. However, the Celts and Germans are not related. The similarity of their culture is due to close proximity, mixed marriages, trade.
In the east, the Germans bordered on the Slavs, B altic tribes and Finns. Of course, all these peoples influenced each other. It can be traced in the language, customs, ways of doing business. Modern Germans are the descendants of the Slavs and Celts, assimilated by the Germans. The Romans noted the high growth of the Slavs and Germans, as well as blond or light red hair and blue (or gray) eyes. In addition, representatives of these peoples had a similar shape of the skull, which was discovered during archaeological excavations.
Slavs and ancient Germans struck the Romanresearchers, not only by the beauty of the physique and facial features, but also by endurance. True, the former have always been considered more peaceful, while the latter are aggressive and reckless.
Appearance
As already mentioned, the Germans seemed to the pampered Romans mighty and tall. Free men wore long hair and did not shave their beards. In some tribes, it was customary to tie the hair at the back of the head. But in any case, they had to be long, since cropped hair is a sure sign of a slave. The clothes of the Germans were mostly simple, at first rather rough. They preferred leather tunics, woolen capes. Both men and women were hardy: even in the cold they wore shirts with short sleeves. The ancient German reasonably believed that excess clothing hinders movement. For this reason, the warriors did not even have armor. Helmets, however, were, although not all.
Unmarried German women wore their hair loose, married women covered their hair with a wool net. This headdress was purely symbolic. Shoes for men and women were the same: leather sandals or boots, woolen windings. The clothes were decorated with brooches and buckles.
The social structure of the ancient Germans
The socio-political institutions of the Germans were not complex. At the turn of the century, these tribes had a tribal system. It is also called primitive communal. In this system, it is not the individual who matters, but the race. It is formed by blood relatives who live in the same village, cultivate the land together and take an oath to each otherblood feud. Several genera make up a tribe. The ancient Germans made all important decisions by collecting the Thing. That was the name of the people's assembly of the tribe. Important decisions were made at the Thing: they redistributed communal lands between clans, judged criminals, resolved disputes, concluded peace treaties, declared wars and gathered militia. Here they dedicated young men to warriors and elected, as needed, military leaders - dukes. Only free men were allowed to the ting, but not every one of them had the right to make speeches (this was allowed only to the elders and the most respected members of the clan / tribe). The Germans had patriarchal slavery. The not free had certain rights, had property, lived in the owner's house. They could not be killed with impunity.
Military organization
The history of the ancient Germans is full of conflicts. Men devoted a lot of time to military affairs. Even before the start of systematic campaigns on Roman lands, the Germans formed a tribal elite - the Edelings. Edelings were people who distinguished themselves in battle. It cannot be said that they had any special rights, but they had authority.
At first, the Germans chose ("raised on the shield") dukes only in case of a military threat. But at the beginning of the Great Migration of Nations, they began to elect kings (kings) from the edelings for life. The kings were at the head of the tribes. They acquired permanent squads and endowed them with everything necessary (as a rule, at the end of a successful campaign). Loy alty to the leader was exceptional. The ancient German considered it a disgrace to return from battle, towhich the king fell. In this situation, suicide was the only option.
There was a generic principle in the German army. This meant that relatives always fought shoulder to shoulder. Perhaps it is this feature that determines the ferocity and fearlessness of warriors.
The Germans fought on foot. The cavalry appeared late, the Romans had a low opinion of it. The main weapon of a warrior was a spear (framea). The famous knife of the ancient German - Saxon was widely used. Then came the throwing ax and spatha, a double-edged Celtic sword.
Housekeeping
Ancient historians often described the Germans as nomadic pastoralists. Moreover, there was an opinion that men were engaged exclusively in war. Archaeological research in the 19th and 20th centuries showed that things were somewhat different. Firstly, they led a settled way of life, engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. The community of ancient Germans owned meadows, pastures and fields. True, the latter were not numerous, since most of the territories subject to the Germans were occupied by forests. Nevertheless, the Germans grew oats, rye and barley. But breeding cows and sheep was a priority. The Germans had no money, their we alth was measured by the number of heads of cattle. Of course, the Germans were excellent at processing leather and actively traded in them. They also made fabrics from wool and linen.
They mastered the extraction of copper, silver and iron, but few owned blacksmithing. Over time, the Germans learnedsmelt Damascus steel and make very high quality swords. However, the Sax, the combat knife of the ancient German, has not gone out of use.
Beliefs
Information about the religious beliefs of the barbarians, which Roman historians managed to get, is very scarce, contradictory and vague. Tacitus writes that the Germans deified the forces of nature, especially the sun. Over time, natural phenomena began to be personified. This is how, for example, the cult of Donar (Thor), the god of thunder, appeared.
The Germans revered Tivaz, the patron saint of warriors, very much. According to Tacitus, they performed human sacrifices in his honor. In addition, the weapons and armor of the slain enemies were dedicated to him. In addition to the "general" gods (Donar, Wodan, Tivaz, Fro), each tribe praised "personal", lesser-known deities. The Germans did not build temples: it was customary to pray in the forests (sacred groves) or in the mountains. It must be said that the traditional religion of the ancient Germans (those who lived on the mainland) was relatively quickly replaced by Christianity. The Germans learned about Christ in the 3rd century thanks to the Romans. But on the Scandinavian Peninsula, paganism lasted a long time. It was reflected in folklore works that were recorded during the Middle Ages ("Elder Edda" and "Younger Edda").
Culture and Art
The Germans treated priests and soothsayers with reverence and respect. The priests accompanied the troops on campaigns. They were charged with the obligation to conduct religious rituals(sacrifice), turn to the gods, punish criminals and cowards. Soothsayers were engaged in fortune-telling: by the entrails of sacred animals and defeated enemies, by flowing blood and the neighing of horses.
The ancient Germans willingly made metal jewelry in the "animal style", borrowed, presumably, from the Celts, but they did not have a tradition of depicting gods. Very crude, conditional statues of deities found in peat bogs had exclusively ritual significance. They have no artistic value. Nevertheless, the furniture and household items were skillfully decorated by the Germans.
According to historians, the ancient Germans loved music, which was an indispensable attribute of feasts. They played flutes and lyres and sang songs.
The Germans used runic writing. Of course, it was not intended for long connected texts. The runes had a sacred meaning. With their help, people turned to the gods, tried to predict the future, cast spells. Short runic inscriptions are found on stones, household items, weapons and shields. Without a doubt, the religion of the ancient Germans was reflected in the runic writing. The Scandinavians had runes until the 16th century.
Engagement with Rome: war and trade
Germania Magna, or Greater Germany, was never a Roman province. At the turn of the era, as already mentioned, the Romans conquered the tribes living east of the Rhine River. But in 9 A. D. e. Roman legions under the command of the Cheruscus Arminius (German) weredefeated in the Teutoburg Forest, a lesson the Imperials remembered for a long time.
The border between enlightened Rome and wild Europe began to run along the Rhine, Danube and Limes. Here the Romans quartered troops, erected fortifications and founded cities that exist to this day (for example, Mainz-Mogontsiacum, and Vindobona (Vienna)).
The ancient Germans and the Roman Empire were not always at war with each other. Until the middle of the 3rd century AD. e. peoples coexisted relatively peacefully. At this time, trade, or rather exchange, developed. The Germans supplied the Romans with dressed leather, furs, slaves, amber, and in return received luxury goods and weapons. Little by little they even got used to using money. Individual tribes had privileges: for example, the right to trade on Roman soil. Many men became mercenaries for the Roman emperors.
However, the invasion of the Huns (nomads from the east), which began in the 4th century AD. e., "moved" the Germans from their homes, and they again rushed to the imperial territories.
Ancient Germans and the Roman Empire: finale
By the beginning of the Great Migration of Nations, the powerful German kings began to unite the tribes: at first in order to protect themselves from the Romans, and then in order to capture and plunder their provinces. In the 5th century, the entire Western Empire was invaded. Barbarian kingdoms of Ostrogoths, Franks, Anglo-Saxons were erected on its ruins. The Eternal City itself was besieged and sacked several times during this turbulent century. The tribes were especially distinguishedvandals. In 476 a.d. e. Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, was forced to abdicate under pressure from the mercenary Odoacer.
The social structure of the ancient Germans has finally changed. The barbarians moved from the communal way of life to the feudal one. The Middle Ages have arrived.
