Studying the behavior of people and their relationship with each other was done by ancient philosophers. Even then, there was such a thing as ethos ("ethos" in ancient Greek), meaning living together in a house. Later, they began to designate a stable phenomenon or feature, for example, character, custom.
The subject of ethics as a philosophical category was first applied by Aristotle, giving it the meaning of human virtues.
History of Ethics
Already 2500 years ago, great philosophers identified the main traits of a person's character, his temperament and spiritual qualities, which they called ethical virtues. Cicero, having familiarized himself with the works of Aristotle, introduced a new term "morality", which he gave the same meaning.
The subsequent development of philosophy led to the fact that it singled out a separate discipline - ethics. The subject (definition) studied by this science is morality and morality. For quite a long time, these categories were given the same meaning, but some philosophersthey were distinguished. For example, Hegel believed that morality is the subjective perception of actions, and morality is the actions themselves and their objective nature.
Depending on the historical processes taking place in the world and changes in the social development of society, the subject of ethics has constantly changed its meaning and content. What was inherent in primitive people became unusual for the inhabitants of the ancient period, and their ethical standards were criticized by medieval philosophers.
Pre-antique ethics
Long before the subject of ethics as a science was formed, there was a long period, which is commonly called "pre-ethics".
One of the brightest representatives of that time can be called Homer, whose heroes had a set of positive and negative qualities. But the general concept of which actions are virtues and which are not, he has not yet formed. Neither the Odyssey nor the Iliad have an instructive character, but are simply a story about events, people, heroes and gods who lived at that time.
For the first time, basic human values as a measure of ethical virtue were voiced in the works of Hesiod, who lived at the beginning of the class division of society. He considered the main qualities of a person to be honest work, justice and the legality of actions as the basis of what leads to the preservation and increase of property.
The first postulates of morality and morality were the statements of the five wise men of antiquity:
- respect your elders (Chilon);
- avoid untruth(Cleobulus);
- glory to the gods, and honor to parents (Solon);
- meet the measure (Thales);
- pacify anger (Chilon);
- promiscuity is a flaw (Thales).
These criteria required certain behavior from people, and therefore became the first moral norms for people of that time. Ethics as a science, the subject and tasks of which are the study of a person and his qualities, was only in its infancy during this period.
Sophists and ancient sages
From the 5th century BC, the rapid development of sciences, arts and architecture began in many countries. Never before has such a large number of philosophers been born, various schools and trends have formed that pay great attention to the problems of man, his spiritual and moral qualities.
The most significant at that time was the philosophy of ancient Greece, represented by two directions:
- Amoralists and sophists who denied the creation of moral requirements binding on all. For example, the sophist Protagoras believed that the subject and object of ethics is morality, a fickle category that changes under the influence of time. It belongs to the category of relative, since every nation in a certain period of time has its own moral principles.
- They were opposed by such great minds as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, who created the subject of ethics as a science of morality, and Epicurus. They believed that the basis of virtue is the harmony between reason and emotions. In their opinion, it was not given by the gods, which means that it is a tool that allows you to separate good deeds from evil.
It was Aristotle in his work "Ethics" who divided the moral qualities of a person into 2 types:
- ethical, that is, associated with temperament;
- dianoetic - relating to the mental development of a person and the ability to influence passions with the help of the mind.
According to Aristotle, the subject of ethics is 3 teachings - about the highest good, about virtues in general and in particular, and the object of study is a person. It was he who introduced into the rim that morality (ethics) is the acquired properties of the soul. He developed the concept of a virtuous person.
Epicure and the Stoics
In contrast to Aristotle, Epicurus put forward his hypothesis of morality, according to which only the life that leads to the satisfaction of basic needs and desires is happy and virtuous, because they are easily achieved, which means they make a person serene and happy with everything.
The Stoics left the deepest trace after Aristotle in the development of ethics. They believed that all the virtues (good and evil) are inherent in a person in the same way as in the surrounding world. The goal of people is to develop in themselves qualities that correlate with good, and to eliminate the evil inclination. The most prominent representatives of the Stoics were Zeno in Greece, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius in Rome.
Medieval ethics
During this period, the subject of ethics is the promotion of Christian dogmas, since religious morality began to rule the world. The highest goal of man in the medieval era was the service to God, which was interpreted throughChrist's teaching about loving him.
If the ancient philosophers believed that virtues are the property of any person and his task is to increase them on the side of good in order to be in harmony with himself and the world, then with the development of Christianity they became divine grace, which the Creator endows people or not.
The most famous philosophers of that time are St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. According to the first, the commandments are originally perfect, since they came from God. The one who lives according to them and glorifies the Creator will go to heaven with him, and hell is prepared for the rest. Augustine the Blessed also argued that such a category as evil does not exist in nature. It is performed by people and angels who have turned away from the Creator for the sake of their own existence.
Thomas Aquinas went even further, declaring that bliss during life is impossible - it is the basis of the afterlife. Thus, the subject of ethics in the Middle Ages lost its connection with a person and his qualities, giving way to church ideas about the world and the place of people in it.
New Ethics
A new round of development of philosophy and ethics begins with the denial of morality as the divine will given to man in the ten commandments. For example, Spinoza argued that the Creator is nature, the cause of everything that exists, acting according to its own laws. He believed that in the surrounding world there is no absolute good and evil, there are only situations in which a person acts in one way or another. It is the understanding of what is useful and what is harmful for the preservation of life that determines the nature of people and their moral qualities.
According to Spinoza, the subject andthe tasks of ethics are the study of human shortcomings and virtues in the process of finding happiness, and they are based on the desire for self-preservation.
Immanuel Kant, on the contrary, believed that the core of everything is free will, which is part of moral duty. His first law of morality says: "Act in such a way that you always recognize the rational will in yourself and others not as a means to an achievement, but as an end."
The evil (selfishness) originally inherent in a person is the center of all actions and goals. To rise above it, people must show full respect for both their own and other people's personality. It was Kant who revealed the subject of ethics briefly and easily as a philosophical science that stood apart from its other types, creating formulas for ethical views on the world, the state and politics.
Modern ethics
In the 20th century, the subject of ethics as a science is morality based on non-violence and reverence for life. The manifestation of good began to be considered from the position of non-multiplication of evil. This side of the ethical perception of the world through the prism of the good was especially well revealed by Leo Tolstoy.
Violence breeds violence and multiplies suffering and pain - this is the main motive of this ethics. It was also adhered to by M. Gandhi, who sought to make India free without the use of violence. In his opinion, love is the most powerful weapon, acting with the same force and accuracy as the basic laws of nature, such as gravity.
In our time, many countries have come to understand that the ethics of non-violence provides more effectiveresults in conflict resolution, although it cannot be called passive. She has two forms of protest: non-cooperation and civil disobedience.
Ethical Values
One of the foundations of modern moral values is the philosophy of Albert Schweitzer, the founder of the ethics of reverence for life. His concept was respect for any life without dividing it into useful, higher or lower, valuable or worthless.
At the same time, he admitted that, due to circumstances, people can save their lives by taking someone else's. At the heart of his philosophy is the conscious choice of a person towards protecting life, if the situation allows it, and not thoughtlessly taking it away. Schweitzer considered self-denial, forgiveness and service to people as the main criteria for preventing evil.
In the modern world, ethics as a science does not dictate the rules of behavior, but studies and systematizes common ideals and norms, a common understanding of morality and its significance in the life of both an individual and society as a whole.
The concept of morality
Moral (morality) is a socio-cultural phenomenon that forms the fundamental essence of humanity. All human activities are based on ethical standards recognized in the society in which they live.
Knowledge of moral rules and ethics of behavior helps individuals to adapt among others. Morality is also an indicator of the degree of responsibility of a person for his actions.
Ethical and spiritual qualitiesbrought up from childhood. From theory, through right actions towards others, they become a practical and everyday side of human existence, and their violation is condemned by the public.
Problems of ethics
Since ethics studies the essence of morality and its place in the life of society, it solves the following tasks:
- describes morality from the history of formation in antiquity to the principles and norms inherent in modern society;
- characterizes morality from the standpoint of its "proper" and "existing" version;
- teaches people the basic moral principles, gives knowledge about good and evil, helps self-improvement in choosing their own understanding of the "right life".
Thanks to this science, the ethical assessment of people's actions and their relationships is built with a focus on understanding whether good or evil is achieved.
Types of ethics
In modern society, people's activities in numerous areas of life are very closely connected, so the subject of ethics considers and studies its various types:
- family ethics deals with the relationship of people in marriage;
- business ethics - norms and rules of doing business;
- corporate studies team relationships;
- professional ethics educate and study the behavior of people in their workplace.
Today, many countries are implementing ethical laws regarding the death pen alty, euthanasia and organ transplants. As human society continues to evolve, with itethics are also changing.
