Logic is one of the most ancient subjects, standing next to philosophy and sociology and being a significant general cultural phenomenon from the very beginning of its occurrence. The role of this science in the modern world is important and multifaceted. Those who have knowledge in this area can conquer the whole world. It was believed that this is the only science capable of finding compromise solutions in any situation. Many scientists attribute the discipline to a branch of philosophy, while others, in turn, refute this possibility.
It is natural that over time the orientation of logical research changes, methods improve and new trends arise that meet scientific and technical requirements. This is necessary because every year society faces new problems that cannot be solved by outdated methods. The subject of logic studies the thinking of a person from the side of those patterns that he uses in the process of knowing the truth. In fact, since the discipline we are considering is very multifaceted, it is studied using several methods. Let's take a look at them.
Etymology of logic
Etymology is a branch of linguistics, the main purpose of which is the origin of the word, its study from the point of view of semantics (meaning). "Logos" in Greek means "word", "thought", "knowledge". Thus, we can say that logic is a subject that studies thinking (reasoning). However, psychology, philosophy and physiology of nervous activity, one way or another, also study thinking, but can it be said that these sciences study the same thing? On the contrary, in a certain sense they are opposites. The difference between these sciences lies in the way of thinking. Ancient philosophers believed that human thinking is diverse, because he is able to analyze situations and create an algorithm for performing certain tasks to achieve a specific goal. For example, philosophy as a subject is rather just reasoning about life, about the meaning of being, while logic, in addition to idle thoughts, leads to a certain result.
Reference method
Let's try to use dictionaries. Here the meaning of this term is somewhat different. From the point of view of the authors of encyclopedias, logic is a subject that studies the laws and forms of human thinking in order to understand the surrounding reality. This science is interested in how “living” true knowledge functions, and in search of answers to their questions, scientists do not turn to each specific case, but are guided by special rules and laws of thought. The main task of logic as a science of thinking is to take into account theonly a way of obtaining new knowledge without linking its form with specific content.
Logic principle
The subject and meaning of logic is best seen through a concrete example. Take two statements from different fields of science.
- "All stars have their own radiation. The sun is a star. It has its own radiation.”
- Any witness must tell the truth. My friend is a witness. My friend is obliged to tell the truth.
If we analyze these judgments, we can see that in each of them the third is explained by two arguments. Although each of the examples belongs to different fields of knowledge, the way the content components are connected in each of them is the same. Namely: if an object has a certain property, then everything that concerns this quality has another property. Result: The item in question also has this second property. These cause-and-effect relationships are called logic. This relationship can be observed in many life situations.
Let's turn to history
To understand the true meaning of this science, you need to know how and under what circumstances it arose. It turns out that the subject of logic as a science arose in several countries almost simultaneously: in ancient India, in ancient China and in ancient Greece. If we talk about Greece, then this science arose during the period of the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of such strata of the population as merchants, landowners and artisans. Those who ruled Greece infringed on the interests of almost all segments of the population, and the Greeks activelybegan to express their positions. In order to resolve the conflict peacefully, each of the parties used their own arguments and arguments. This gave impetus to the development of such a science as logic. The subject was used very actively, because it was very important to win discussions in order to influence decision-making.
In ancient China, logic arose during the golden age of Chinese philosophy, or, as it was also called, the period of "fighting states". Similar to the situation in ancient Greece, the struggle between the we althy sections of the population and the authorities also flared up here. The first wanted to change the structure of the state and cancel the transfer of power in a hereditary way. During such a struggle, in order to win, it was necessary to gather around him as many supporters as possible. However, if in ancient Greece this served as an additional incentive for the development of logic, then in ancient China it was quite the opposite. After the kingdom of Qin nevertheless became dominant, and the so-called cultural revolution took place, the development of logic at this stage
it stopped.
Given that in different countries this science arose precisely during the period of struggle, the subject and meaning of logic can be characterized as follows: it is the science of the sequence of human thinking, which can positively influence the resolution of conflict situations and disputes.
The main subject of logic
It is difficult to single out one specific meaning that could generally characterize such an ancient science. For example,the subject of logic is the study of the laws of derivation of correct definite judgments and statements from certain true circumstances. This is how Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege characterized this ancient science. The concept and subject of logic was also studied by Andrey Nikolayevich Shuman, a well-known logician of our time. He considered it to be the science of thinking, which explores different ways of thinking and models them. In addition, the object and subject of logic is, of course, speech, because logic is carried out only with the help of a conversation or discussion, and it does not matter at all, out loud or “to oneself.”
The above statements indicate that the subject of the science of logic is the structure of thinking and its various properties that separate the sphere of abstract-logical, rational thinking - forms of thinking, laws, necessary relationships between structural elements and the correctness of thinking to achieve the truth.
The process of seeking the truth
In simple terms, logic is a thought process of searching for truth, because on the basis of its principles the process of searching for scientific knowledge is formed. There are various forms and methods of using logic, and all of them are combined into the theory of knowledge inference in various fields of science. This is the so-called traditional logic, within which there are more than 10 different methods, but Descartes' deductive logic and Bacon's inductive logic are still considered the main ones.
Deductive logic
We all know the deduction method. Its use anywayassociated with the science of logic. The subject of Descartes' logic is a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which lies in the strict derivation of new ones from certain provisions that have been previously studied and proven. He was able to explain why, since the original statements are true, then the derived ones are also true.
For deductive logic, it is very important that there are no contradictions in the initial statements, since in the future they can lead to incorrect conclusions. Deductive logic is very precise and does not tolerate assumptions. All postulates that are used, as a rule, are based on verified data. This logical method has the power of persuasion and is used, as a rule, in the exact sciences, such as mathematics. Moreover, the deductive method is not questioned, but the very way of finding the truth is studied. For example, the well-known Pythagorean theorem. Is it possible to doubt its correctness? Rather, on the contrary - it is necessary to learn the theorem and learn how to prove it. The subject "Logic" studies exactly this direction. With its help, with the knowledge of certain laws and properties of the subject, it becomes possible to derive new ones.
Inductive logic
It can be said that Bacon's so-called inductive logic practically contradicts the basic principles of deductive logic. If the previous method is used for the exact sciences, then this one is for the natural sciences, in which logic is needed. The subject of logic in such sciences: knowledge is obtained through observations and experiments. There is no place for exact data and calculations. All calculationsare produced only purely theoretically, with the aim of studying an object or phenomenon. The essence of inductive logic is as follows:
- To carry out constant monitoring of the object being studied and create an artificial situation that could theoretically arise. This is necessary to study the properties of certain subjects that cannot be learned in natural conditions. This is a prerequisite for learning inductive logic.
- Based on observations, collect as many facts as possible about the object under study. It is very important to note that since the conditions have been artificially created, the facts may be distorted, but this does not mean that they are false.
- Summarize and systematize the data obtained during the experiments. This is necessary to assess the situation. If there is not enough data, then the phenomenon or object must be placed again in another artificial situation.
- Create a theory to explain the findings and predict their future development. This is the final stage, which serves to sum up. The theory can be drawn up without taking into account the actual data obtained, however, it will nevertheless be accurate.
For example, on the basis of empirical research on natural phenomena, vibrations of sound, light, waves, etc., physicists have formulated the position that any phenomenon of a periodic nature can be measured. Of course, separate conditions were created for each phenomenon and certain calculations were carried out. Depending on the complexity of the artificial situation,readings differed significantly. This is what made it possible to prove that the periodicity of oscillations can be measured. Bacon explained scientific induction as a method of scientific knowledge of causal relationships and a method of scientific discovery.
Causality
From the very beginning of the development of the science of logic, much attention was paid to this factor, which affects the entire process of research. Causality is a very important aspect in the process of studying logic. The reason is a certain event or object (1), which naturally affects the occurrence of another object or phenomenon (2). The subject of the science of logic, speaking formally, is to find out the reasons for this sequence. After all, from the above, it turns out that (1) is the cause of (2).
One can give an example: scientists who study outer space and the objects that are there have discovered the phenomenon of a “black hole”. This is a kind of cosmic body, the gravitational field of which is so large that it is able to absorb any other object in space. Now let's find out the causal relationship of this phenomenon: if the gravitational field of any cosmic body is very large: (1), then it is able to absorb any other (2).
Basic Methods of Logic
The subject of logic briefly explores many areas of life, however, in most cases, the information obtained depends on the logical method. For example, analysis is the figurative division of the object under study into certain parts, in order to study its properties. Analysis, as a rule, is necessarily connected with synthesis. If the first method separates the phenomenon, then the second, on the contrary, connects the received parts to establish a relationship between them.
Another interesting subject of logic is the abstraction method. This is the process of mental separation of certain properties of an object or phenomenon in order to study them. All these techniques can be classified as methods of cognition.
There is also a method of interpretation, which consists in knowing the sign system of certain objects. Thus, objects and phenomena can be given a symbolic meaning, which will facilitate understanding of the essence of the object itself.
Modern logic
Modern logic is not a doctrine, but a reflection of the world. As a rule, this science has two periods of formation. The first begins in the Ancient World (Ancient Greece, Ancient India, Ancient China) and ends in the 19th century. The second period begins in the second half of the 19th century and continues to this day. Philosophers and scientists of our time do not stop studying this ancient science. It would seem that all its methods and principles have long been studied by Aristotle and his followers, but every year logic as a science, the subject of logic, as well as its features continue to be explored.
One of the features of modern logic is the spread of the subject of research, which is due to new types and ways of thinking. This led to the emergence of such new types of modal logic as the logic of change and causal logic. It has been proven that suchmodels are significantly different from those already studied.
Modern logic as a science is used in many areas of life, such as engineering and information technology. For example, if you consider how a computer is arranged and works, you can find out that all programs on it are executed using an algorithm, where logic is involved in one way or another. In other words, we can say that the scientific process has reached the level of development where devices and mechanisms operating on logical principles are successfully created and put into operation.
Another example of the use of logic in modern science are control programs in CNC machines and installations. Here, too, it would seem that an iron robot performs logically constructed actions. However, such examples only formally show us the development of modern logic, because only a living being, such as a person, can have such a way of thinking. Moreover, many scientists are still arguing whether animals can have logical skills. All research in this area boils down to the fact that the principle of action of animals is based only on their instincts. Only a person can receive information, process it and give the result.
Research in the field of such a science as logic can still continue for thousands of years, because the human brain has not been thoroughly studied. Every year people are born more and more developed, which indicates the ongoing evolution of man.
