One of the most famous American chemists is Linus Pauling. His biography is of interest not only to residents of the United States, but also to people around the world. No wonder, because he researched vitamins - dietary supplements so popular today. And I must say, Linus Carl Pauling came up with interesting results. It is this scientist, who won two Nobel Prizes, that we will talk about today.
The origin and childhood of Linus Pauling
Linus Pauling, whose photo and biography are presented in the article, was born in Portland on February 28, 1901. The boy's father was a pharmacist (pictured below), and his mother was a housewife. When Linus was 9 years old, his father died. Because of this, the family had a hard time financially.
Linus grew up as a reserved and thoughtful child. He could observe insects for a long time, but Pauling was especially attracted to minerals. He was fascinated and attracted by the world of colored stones. This passion for crystals sometimes manifested itself in adulthood: the scientist studied several minerals, based on the theory he created.
At the age of 13, Pauling first visited a chemical laboratory. What he saw there made a great impression on him. Linus decided to start experimenting immediately. He borrowed his mother's "chemical" utensils from his mother's kitchen, and his own room became a research space.
College education
Pauling never graduated from high school, which did not prevent him from enrolling in the Oregon Agricultural College, which later became the University of Oregon. During his studies, Linus became seriously interested in chemical technology. And in the evenings and nights he had to earn a livelihood. Pauling worked as a dishwasher in a restaurant and also sorted paper in a print shop.
Linus studied brilliantly. The prodigy was noticed by teachers and in the penultimate year they offered him to become an assistant. So Pauling began working in the Department of Quantitative Analysis. A year later, he became an assistant in mechanics, chemistry and materials.
Defending a doctoral dissertation, starting a career as a scientist
Linus Pauling in 1922 became a bachelor of science (chemical engineering). To work on his doctoral dissertation, he was invited to the California Institute of Technology, located in Pasadena. He brilliantly defended the work in 1925.
The young scientist began his career at the Institute of Technology. He became an assistant professor at1927, adjunct professor in 1929. In 1931, Pauling was already professor of chemistry.
Exploring X-ray crystallography
During this time, he acquired important skills in the field of X-ray crystallography. Linus read x-rays with ease, as if he could see the atomic structure of matter with his own eyes. This knowledge brought the scientist closer to the nature of the chemical bond - the main field of study for the rest of his life. He went to Europe, where he visited famous scientists: in Munich - A. Sommerfeld, in Zurich - E. Schrödinger, in Copenhagen - N. Bora.
Theory of hybridization (resonance)
In 1928, Linus put forward his theory of hybridization (in other words, the theory of resonance). It was a real breakthrough in structural chemistry. At that time, the problem of reflecting the structure and properties of a compound in a chemical formula was still unresolved. Despite the fact that scientists agreed to use a dash to indicate a valence bond, many ambiguities arose. The fact is that in reality everything turned out to be more complicated than the schemes drawn on paper.
Soon needed additional designations. In particular, if the bond was polar, this was indicated by an additional arrow; if it was ionic, minuses and pluses were additionally placed above the atoms. However, that didn't help much either. It turned out that for an adequate representation of the properties and structure of many molecules, especially complex ones, it was necessary to resort to several structural formulas. In particular, for benzene, as many as five were needed. Soas each was considered separately, none of them could accurately describe the properties and structure of this aromatic compound.
The idea proposed by Pauling was that the molecule is the result of resonance, that is, the superposition of several structures on top of each other. Moreover, each of these structures describes various features of the chemical properties and structure of the molecule.
In 1939, Linus' work "The Nature of the Chemical Bond" appeared. The scientist applied quantum theory to solve various problems facing science. This allowed him to explain many disparate facts from a unified theoretical standpoint.
New discoveries
Linus Pauling in the second half of the 1930s investigated the structure of molecules based on the theory of resonance. He was also interested in antibodies, in particular their ability to provide immunity. The scientist made a number of discoveries in the field of virology, immunology and biochemistry. For example, he studied the hemoglobin molecule. Linus Pauling in 1951 published the first description of the three-dimensional molecular structure of proteins (co-authored with R. Korn). It was derived from X-ray crystallography data.
Attitude towards Pauling's theory in the USSR
Pauling's theory caused a real storm in the USSR. In our country, after the defeat of linguists, cyberneticists and geneticists, they took up quantum mechanics, and then chemistry became the target of the NKVD. Pauling's resonance theory, as well as K. Ingold's mesomerism theory, related to it, were the main targets of attacks. The Soviet Union announced thatPauling's ideas about a real molecule as a middle ground between two or more extreme abstract structures are idealistic and bourgeois. On June 11, 1951, an All-Union Conference was held, at which the problems of chemical structure were considered. At this event, the theory of resonance was crushed.
Nobel Prizes and other achievements of Pauling
However, Linus' achievements were appreciated abroad. Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954 for his study of the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the study of the structure of compounds. And in 1962, the scientist received this award for the second time - as a fighter for peace.
Pauling is the author of about 250 scientific publications and many books, including a textbook on modern chemistry, unique in its depth and simplicity of presentation. In 1948, for achievements in science, he became the head of the American Chemical Society, and was also elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States and many other scientific societies in various countries.
Peacemaking activities
Deeply realizing the threat posed to mankind by atomic weapons, Linus began to actively fight against the creation of new nuclear weapons. This scientist was among the initiators of the Pugwash movement. Pauling in 1957 handed over an appeal to the UN Secretary General, signed by 11,021 scientists representing 49 countries of the world. In the 1958 book No War! Linus Pauling expressed his pacifist views.
In June 1961, the scientist, along with hishis wife convened a conference in Norway (Oslo), the theme of which is counteracting the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Despite Linus' appeal to Nikita Khrushchev, in September of the same year, the USSR resumed testing. And in March of the following year, the United States did the same. Then the scientist began to carry out dosimetric control of radioactivity. Pauling in October 1962 circulated the information that its level had doubled compared to the previous 16 years. In addition, Pauling drafted a treaty to ban such tests. In July 1963, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain signed it.
The scientist left the C altech in 1963 and began working at the Center for Public Institution Research, located in Santa Barbara. Here he began to deal with the problems of war and peace. Linus carried out a number of experiments on the threat of radioactive contamination. The scientist found that radioactive elements cause leukemia, bone cancer, thyroid cancer and some other diseases. Despite the fact that Linus was equally active in condemning the Soviet and US governments for the arms race, some conservative politicians questioned his loy alty to the United States.
In 1969, the scientist stopped working at the University of California, where he carried out his research for two years. He did this in protest against the educational policy pursued by R. Reagan, the governor of California. Linus began working as a professor at Stanford University.
Pauling's personal life
In 1922the scientist married a student at the Oregon Agricultural College - Ava Helen Miller (her photo is presented below). They had a daughter and three sons. Ava Elen died in 1981. After her death, Pauling lived in Big Sur, California, where their country house was located.
Pauling Orthomolecular Medicine
Pauling is an adherent and promoter of the so-called orthomolecular medicine. Its essence lies in the fact that the treatment is carried out with the help of substances that are present in the human body. The scientist believed that in order to defeat a particular disease, you just need to correctly change their concentration. His Scientific Medical Institute was founded in 1973 to study how to treat and prevent disease by consuming the right doses of beneficial minerals and vitamins. Pauling believed that it was especially important to consume vitamin C in large quantities. In 1979, a book by this scientist called "Cancer and Vitamin C" appeared. It talked about how ascorbic acid helps to cope with this dangerous disease. Linus Pauling "Vitamin C and the common cold" created in the same year. Both of these books met with controversy from the medical community, but became very popular.
Ascorbic acid study
Dr. Linus Pauling's vitamins became interesting even in old age. The scientist devoted the last 30 years of his life to the study of ascorbic acid and the possibilities of its clinical use and came to the conclusion thatits use in large quantities has a positive effect on the human body.
It should be said right away that no vitamins will save you if you lead an unhe althy lifestyle. They can be compared to seat belts. When a person is wearing a seatbelt, it simply protects him in an accident, but is not a guarantee of a safe ride. Vitamins also only give us additional protection. Confirmation of their action is the active and long life of a scientist like Linus Pauling. He took vitamin C in the amount of 18 g per day, and vitamin E (tocopherol) - 800 IU each, starting from the seventh decade. Linus managed to live to be 93 years old! Linus Pauling died in 1994. His brief biography indicates that he did not suffer from serious illnesses.
By the way, even the irreconcilable opponents of this scientist agree that ascorbic acid is good for he alth. A fierce debate has been going on for many years only about the amount that should be taken.
What do the statistics say?
The US Academy of Sciences recommends that an adult male take 60 mg of vitamin C daily. Russian norms differ depending on the person's age, gender and profession. For men, this is 60-110 mg, for women - 55-80. With these and large quantities, there is neither hypovitaminosis (bleeding gums, fatigue), nor scurvy. In people who consume more than 50 mg of ascorbic acid per day, according to statistics, the signs of old age appear 10 years later than the rest.
Vitamins LinusPauling
Reviews about their use come from all over the world. Vitamins strengthen the immune system, give a good appearance, a charge of vivacity and energy, as people say. They are becoming increasingly popular as a dietary supplement. We are talking about such a complex produced today as "Super Multi-vitamins" by Dr. Linus Pauling. It consists of more than 40 vitamins, herbal ingredients, minerals and royal jelly. The latter has immunostimulating and anti-inflammatory properties, and also increases physical and mental performance. Linus Pauling's multivitamins are recommended as a general tonic. This complex is an additional source of minerals and vitamins.
