The Roman Empire left its imperishable mark on all those European lands where its victorious legions fought. Stone ligature, preserved to this day, can be seen in many countries. These include walls designed to protect citizens, roads along which troops moved, numerous aqueducts and bridges built over turbulent rivers, and much more.
General information
In the history of the Roman Empire, the army has always played a huge role. Throughout its evolution, it has turned from a barely trained militia into a professional, permanent army that had a clear organization, including a headquarters, officers, a huge arsenal of weapons, a supply structure, military engineering units, etc. In Rome, for military service selected men between the ages of seventeen and forty-five.
Citizens from 45 to 60 years old during the war could carry out garrison service. Great attention was also paid to the training of the troops. The army of the Roman Empire, having rich combat experience, had the bestthat time with weapons, strict military discipline was observed in it. The main arm of the army was the infantry. She was "assisted" by the cavalry, which played a supporting role. The main organizational and tactical unit in the army was the legion, which initially consisted of centuries, and already from the 2nd century. before our reckoning - from the maniples. The latter had relative tactical independence and increased the maneuverability of the legion.
Roman Legion
From the middle of the 2nd c. BC e. in the empire began the transition from a militia army to a permanent one. There were 10 cohorts in the legion at that time. Each of them included 3 maniples. The battle formation was built in two lines, each with 5 cohorts. During the reign of Julius Caesar, the legion included 3-4, 5 thousand soldiers, including two hundred or three hundred horsemen, wall-beating and throwing equipment and a convoy. Augustus Octavian unified this number. Each legion had six thousand men. At that time, the emperor had twenty-five such divisions in the army at his disposal. Unlike the ancient Greek phalanxes, the Roman legions were highly mobile, able to fight on rough terrain and quickly echelon forces during the battle. The flanks were lined up with light infantry supported by cavalry.
The history of the wars of Ancient Rome shows that the empire also used the fleet, but assigned the latter an auxiliary value. The commanders maneuvered the troops with great skill. It was in the manner of warfare that Rome initiated the use ofreserve in battle.
The Legionnaires were constantly building structures, even as the frontiers of Ancient Rome slowly began to shrink. In the era of the reign of Hadrian, when the empire was much more concerned with uniting the lands than with conquest, the unclaimed fighting prowess of warriors, cut off from their homes and families for a long time, was wisely channeled into a creative direction.
First Samnite War of Rome - reasons
The growing population forced the empire to expand the boundaries of its possessions. By this time, Rome had already succeeded in finally seizing the dominant place in the Latin alliance. After the suppression in 362-345 BC. e. revolts of the Latins, the empire finally established itself in central Italy. Rome received the right not in turn, but to constantly appoint a commander-in-chief in the Latin alliance, to finally decide questions about peace. The empire populated the newly captured territories for colonies mainly with its citizens, it always received the lion's share of all military booty, etc.
But the headache of Rome was the mountain tribe of the Samnites. It constantly raided his domain and the lands of his allies.
At that time, the Samnite tribes were divided into two large parts. One of them, descending from the mountains into the valley of Campania, assimilated with the local population and adopted the lifestyle of the Etruscans. The second part remained in the mountains and lived there in conditions of military democracy. In 344 BC. in. An embassy of the Campanians arrived in Rome from the city of Capua with an offer of peace. The complexity of the situation wasin that the empire from 354 BC. e. there was a peace treaty concluded with the mountain Samnites - the worst enemies of their lowland relatives. The temptation to add to Rome a large and rich area was great. Rome found a way out: it actually gave the Campanians citizenship and at the same time retained their autonomy. At the same time, diplomats were sent to the Samnites with a request not to touch the new citizens of the empire. The latter, realizing that they wanted to trick them slyly, responded with a rude refusal. Moreover, they began to plunder the Campanians with greater force, which became the pretext for the Samnite war with Rome. In total, there were three battles with this mountain tribe, according to the historian Titus Livius. However, some researchers question this source, saying that there are many inconsistencies in his narratives.
Military action
The history of the war of Rome, presented by Titus Livius, looks briefly as follows: two armies attacked the Samnites. At the head of the first was Avl Cornelius Koss, and the second - Mark Valery Korv. The latter stationed the army at the foot of Mount Le Havre. It was here that the first battle of Rome against the Samnites took place. The battle was very stubborn: it lasted until late in the evening. Even Korva himself, who rushed to the attack at the head of the cavalry, could not turn the tide of the battle. And only after dark, when the Romans made the last, desperate throw, they managed to crush the mountain tribes and put them to flight.
The second battle of Rome's first Samnite war took place at Saticula. According to legend, the legion of a mighty empiredue to the carelessness of the leader, he almost fell into an ambush. The Samnites hid in a wooded narrow gorge. And only thanks to the courageous assistant of the consul, who with a small detachment was able to occupy the hill that dominates the district, the Romans were saved. The Samnites, frightened by a blow from the rear, did not dare to attack the main army. The hitch allowed her to safely leave the gorge.
The third battle of Rome's first Samnite war was won by the legion. It passed under the city of Svessula.
Second and third wars against the Samnites
The new military campaign caused the parties to intervene in the internal struggle of Naples, one of the Campanian cities. The elite was supported by Rome, and the Samnites stood on the side of the democrats. After the betrayal of the nobility, the Roman army captured the city and transferred military operations to the Samnite lands of the federation. Having no experience of military operations in the mountains, the troops, having fallen into an ambush in the Kavdinsky Gorge (321 BC), were captured. This humiliating defeat caused the Roman generals to divide the legion into 30 maniples each of 2 hundreds. Thanks to this reorganization, the conduct of hostilities in the mountainous Samnia was facilitated. The long second war between Rome and the Samnites ended in a new victory. As a result, some of the lands of the Campanians, Aequis and Volsci were ceded to the empire.
The Samnites, who dreamed of getting revenge for previous defeats, joined the anti-Roman coalition of Gauls and Etruscans. Initially, the latter conducted very successfully large-scale hostilities, but in 296 BC. e. near Sentin, she lost in a major battle. The defeat forced the Etruscans to conclude a settlement, and the Gauls retreated to the north.
The Samnites, left alone, could not resist the might of the empire. By 290 BC. e. after the third war with the mountain tribes, the federation was dissolved, and each community began to separately conclude an unequal peace with the enemy.
The war between Rome and Carthage - briefly
Victory in battles has always been the main source of existence of the empire. The wars of Rome ensured a continuous increase in the size of state lands - ager publicus. The captured territories were then distributed among the soldiers - citizens of the empire. Since the proclamation of the republic, Rome had to wage continuous battles of conquest with the neighboring tribes of the Greeks, Latins, and Italics. It took more than two centuries to integrate Italy into the Republic. The Tarentum War, which took place in 280-275 BC, is considered incredibly fierce. e., in which Pyrrhus, the Basileus of Epirus, who was not inferior to Alexander the Great in military talent, spoke out against Rome in support of Tarentum. Despite the fact that the Republican army suffered defeat at the beginning of the war, in the end it emerged victorious. In 265 BC. e. The Romans succeeded in capturing the Etruscan city of Velusna (Volsinia), which was the final conquest of Italy. And already in 264 BC. e. The landing of an army in Sicily began the war between Rome and Carthage. The Punic Wars got their name from the Phoenicians, with whom the empire fought. The fact is that the Romans called them Punians. In this article welet's try to tell as much as possible about the first, second and third stages, as well as to present the reasons for the wars between Rome and Carthage. It must be said that this time the enemy was a we althy slave-owning state, which was also engaged in maritime trade. Carthage flourished at that time, not only as a result of intermediary trade, but also as a result of the development of many types of crafts that glorified its inhabitants. And this circumstance haunted his neighbors.
Reasons
Looking ahead, it must be said that the wars between Rome and Carthage (years 264-146 BC) took place with some interruptions. There were only three.
The reasons for the wars between Rome and Carthage were numerous. From the middle of the third century BC. e. and until almost the middle of the second century before our era, this highly developed slave state was at enmity with the empire, fighting for dominance over the Western Mediterranean. And if Carthage has always been connected mainly with the sea, then Rome was a land city. The courageous inhabitants of the city founded by Romulus and Remus worshiped the Heavenly Father - Jupiter. They were confident that they could gradually take control of literally all the neighboring cities, which is why they reached the rich Sicily, located in southern Italy. It was here that the interests of the sea Carthaginians and the land Romans intersected, who tried to get this island into their sphere of influence.
First hostilities
The Punic War began after an attempt by Carthage to increase its influence in Sicily. Rome could not accept this. The thing is, he also needswas this province, supplying grain to all of Italy. In general, the presence of such a powerful neighbor with an exorbitant appetite absolutely did not suit the growing territorial Roman Empire.
As a result, in 264 BC, the Romans were able to capture the Sicilian city of Messana. The Syracusan trade route was cut. Bypassing the Carthaginians on land, the Romans for some time allowed them to still act on the sea. However, the numerous raids of the latter on the Italian coast forced the empire to create its own fleet.
The first war between Rome and Carthage began a thousand years after the Trojan War. Even the fact that the enemy of the Romans had a very powerful army of mercenaries and a huge fleet did not help.
The war lasted for more than twenty years. During this time, Rome managed not only to defeat Carthage, which practically abandoned Sicily, but also to force itself to pay a huge indemnity. The First Punic War ended with the victory of Rome. However, the hostilities did not end there, because the opponents, continuing to develop and grow stronger, were looking for more and more new lands to establish a sphere of influence.
Hannibal - "Grace of Baal"
Immediately after the end of the first Punic War of Rome and Carthage, the latter entered into a difficult struggle with the troops of mercenaries, which lasted almost three and a half years. The reason for the uprising was the capture of Sardinia. The mercenaries succumbed to Rome, which by force took from Carthage not only this island, but also Corsica. Hamilcar Barca - military leader and famous Carthaginian admiral,who considered a war with the invader inevitable, seized for his country possessions in the south and east of Spain, thereby, as if compensating for the loss of Sardinia and Sicily. Thanks to him, and also to his son-in-law and successor named Hasdrubal, a fine army was created in this territory, consisting mainly of natives. The Romans, who very soon noticed the strengthening of the enemy, were able to conclude an alliance in Spain with such Greek cities as Sagunt and Emporia and demand that the Carthaginians do not cross the Ebro River.
Twenty more years will pass until the son of Hamilcar Barca, the experienced Hannibal, will once again lead an army against the Romans. By 220 BC, he succeeded in completely capturing the Pyrenees. Going overland to Italy, Hannibal crossed the Alps and invaded the territory of the Roman Empire. His army was so strong that the enemy was losing every battle. In addition, according to the narrations of historians, Hannibal was a cunning and unprincipled military leader, who widely used both deceit and meanness. There were many bloodthirsty Gauls in his army. For many years, Hannibal, terrorizing the Roman territories, did not dare to attack the beautifully fortified city founded by Remus and Romulus.
On the demand of the government of Rome to extradite Hannibal, Carthage refused. This was the reason for new hostilities. As a result, the second war between Rome and Carthage began. To strike from the north, Hannibal crossed the snowy Alps. It was an extraordinary military operation. His war elephants looked especially intimidating in the snowy mountains. Hannibal reached TsizalpinskayaGaul with only half of his army. But even this did not help the Romans, who lost the first battles. Publius Scipio was defeated on the banks of the Ticino, and Tiberius Simpronius on the Trebia. At Trasimene Lake, near Etruria, Hannibal destroyed the army of Gaius Flaminius. But he did not even try to get closer to Rome, realizing that there was very little chance of capturing the city. Therefore, Hannibal moved east, devastating and plundering all the southern regions along the way. Despite such a victorious march and the partial defeat of the Roman troops, the hopes of the son of Hamilcar Barca did not materialize. The overwhelming majority of the Italian allies did not support him: with the exception of a few, the rest remained loyal to Rome.
The second war between Rome and Carthage was very different from the first. The only thing they had in common was the name. The first is described by historians as predatory on both sides, since it was deployed for the possession of such a rich island as Sicily. The second war between Rome and Carthage was such only on the part of the Phoenicians, while the Roman army performed only a liberation mission. The results in both cases are the same - the victory of Rome and a huge indemnity imposed on the enemy.
Last Punic War
The cause of the third Punic War is considered to be trade competition between the belligerents in the Mediterranean. The Romans managed to provoke a third conflict and finally finish off the annoying enemy. The reason for the attack was insignificant. The legions landed again in Africa. Having laid siege to Carthage, they demanded the withdrawal of all inhabitants and the destruction of the city to the ground. The Phoenicians refused to voluntarily performthe demands of the aggressor and decided to fight. However, after two days of fierce resistance, the ancient city fell, and the rulers took refuge in the temple. The Romans, having reached the center, saw how the Carthaginians set fire to it and burned themselves in it. The Phoenician commander, who led the city's defense, rushed to the feet of the invaders and began to ask for mercy. According to legend, his proud wife, having performed the last rite of sacrifice in her native dying city, threw their young children into the fire, and then herself entered the burning monastery.
Consequences
Out of 300 thousand inhabitants of Carthage, fifty thousand survived. The Romans sold them into slavery, and destroyed the city, betraying the place on which it stood, cursing and completely plowing. Thus ended the exhausting Punic Wars. There was always competition between Rome and Carthage, but the empire won. The victory made it possible to extend Roman rule over the entire coast.
