II-I centuries BC e. became a time of political upheaval. Several bloody civil wars and a brutal crackdown on slave rebellions, including the well-known revolt led by Spartacus, struck fear into the souls of Roman citizens. The humiliation experienced by the lower strata of the population due to the unsuccessful struggle for their rights, the horror of the rich, who were shocked by the power of the lower classes, forced people to turn to religion.
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Introduction
The state was on the verge of a socio-economic crisis. Previously, all internal difficulties were solved at the expense of weaker neighbors. In order to exploit the labor of other people, it was necessary to capture prisoners and turn them into forced laborers. Now, however, ancient society has become unified, and there were not enough funds to seize the barbarian territories. The situation threatenedstagnation in the production of goods. The slave-owning system imposed restrictions on the further development of farms, but the owners were not ready to abandon the use of forced labor. It was no longer possible to increase the productivity of the slaves, large landowning farms were disintegrating.
All sections of society felt hopeless, they felt confused in the face of such global difficulties. People began to look for support in religion.
Of course, the state tried to help its citizens. The rulers sought to create a cult of their own personality, but the very artificiality of this faith and its obvious political orientation doomed their efforts to failure. The obsolete pagan faith was also not enough.
I would like to note in the introduction (the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire will be discussed later) that Christianity brought with it the belief in a superman who would share with the people all their suffering. However, religion had three long centuries of hard struggle ahead, which ended for Christianity not only in its recognition as a permitted religion, but as the official faith of the Roman Empire.
What were the reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire? When did they end? What was their result? Read about all this and more further in the article.
Reasons for the persecution of Christians
Researchers identify different reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Most often they talk about the incompatibility of the worldview of Christianity and the traditions adopted in Roman society. Christianwere considered offenders to majesty and followers of a forbidden religion. Unacceptable seemed meetings that took place secretly and after sunset, sacred books, in which, according to the Romans, the secrets of healing and exorcism of demons, some ceremonies were recorded.
Orthodox historian V. V. Bolotov puts forward his own version, noting that in the Roman Empire the church was always subordinate to the emperor, and religion itself was only a part of the state system. Bolotov comes to the conclusion that the difference in the postulates of the Christian and pagan religions caused their confrontation, but since paganism did not have an organized church, Christianity found itself an enemy in the face of the whole Empire.
How did Roman citizens see Christians?
In many ways, the reason for the difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire lay in the biased attitude of Roman citizens towards them. All the inhabitants of the empire were hostile: from the lower strata to the state elite. A huge role in shaping the views of Christians in the Roman Empire was played by all sorts of prejudices and slander.
To understand the depth of misunderstanding between Christians and Romans, one should refer to the treatise Octavius by the early Christian apologist Minucius Felix. In it, the author's interlocutor Caecilius repeats the traditional accusations against Christianity: the inconsistency of faith, the lack of moral principles and the threat to the culture of Rome. Caecilius calls the belief in the rebirth of the soul "double madness", and the Christians themselves - "mute in society, garrulous in their shelters."
The rise of Christianity
In the first time after the death of Jesus Christ, there were almost no Christians on the territory of the state. Surprisingly, the very essence of the Roman Empire helped the religion spread rapidly. The good quality of roads and strict social separation led to the fact that already in the 2nd century almost every Roman city had its own Christian community. It was not an accidental union, but a real union: its members helped each other in word and deed, it was possible to receive benefits from the common funds. Most often, the early Christians of the Roman Empire gathered for prayer in secret places, such as caves and catacombs. Soon the traditional symbols of Christianity took shape: a vine of grapes, a fish, a crossed monogram from the first letters of the name of Christ.
Periodization
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire continued from the beginning of the first millennium until the Edict of Milan was issued in 313. In the Christian tradition, it is customary to count them by ten, based on the treatise of the rhetoric Lactantius "On the deaths of the persecutors." However, it should be noted that such a division is arbitrary: there were less than ten specially organized persecutions, and the number of random persecutions far exceeds ten.
Christian persecution under Nero
The persecution that took place under the leadership of this emperor strikes the mind with its immeasurable cruelty. Christians were sewn into the skins of wild animals and given to be torn to pieces by dogs, dressed in clothes soaked in resin and set on fire so that the "infidels" would illuminate Nero's feasts. But such ruthlessness only strengthened the spirit of unityChristians.
Martyrs Paul and Peter
July 12 (June 29) Christians around the world celebrate the day of Peter and Paul. The Day of Remembrance of the Holy Apostles, who died at the hands of Nero, was celebrated in the Roman Empire.
Paul and Peter were engaged in preaching, and although they always worked away from each other, they were destined to die together. The emperor greatly disliked the "apostle to the Gentiles", and his hatred only grew stronger when he learned that during his first arrest, Paul converted many courtiers to his faith. The next time, Nero strengthened the guard. The ruler passionately desired to kill Paul at the first opportunity, but at the trial the speech of the supreme apostle so impressed him that he decided to postpone the execution.
The Apostle Paul was a citizen of Rome, so he was not tortured. The execution took place in secret. The emperor was afraid that with his masculinity and steadfastness he would convert those who saw this to Christianity. However, even the executioners themselves listened attentively to Paul's words and were amazed at the fortitude of his spirit.
The Holy Tradition says that the Apostle Peter, together with Simon Magus, who was also known for his ability to resurrect the dead, was invited by a woman to the burial of her son. To expose the deception of Simon, whom many in the city believed to be God, Peter brought the young man back to life.
Nero's anger turned on Peter after he converted two of the emperor's wives to Christianity. The ruler ordered the execution of the supreme apostle. At the request of the faithful, Peter decided to leave Rome,to avoid punishment, but he had a vision of the Lord entering the gates of the city. The disciple asked Christ where he was going. "To Rome to be crucified again," came the reply, and Peter returned.
Because the apostle was not a Roman citizen, he was scourged and crucified. Before his death, he remembered his sins and considered himself unworthy to accept the same death as his Lord. At Peter's request, the executioners nailed him upside down.
Christian persecution under Domitian
Under Emperor Domitian, a decree was issued according to which no Christian who appeared before the court would be pardoned if he did not renounce his faith. Sometimes his hatred reached the point of complete recklessness: Christians were blamed for the fires, diseases, earthquakes that happened in the country. The state paid money to those who were ready to testify against Christians in court. Slander and lies greatly aggravated the already difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire. The persecution continued.
Persecution under Hadrian
During the reign of Emperor Hadrian, about ten thousand Christians died. From his hand, the whole family of the brave Roman commander, a sincere Christian, Eustachius, who refused to sacrifice to idols in honor of the victory, died.
The brothers Fausin and Yovit endured torture with such humble patience that the pagan Caloserius said in amazement: “How great is the Christian God!”. He was immediately arrested and also tortured.
Persecution under Marcus AureliusAntonina
The famous philosopher of antiquity Marcus Aurelius was also widely known for his ruthlessness. On his initiative, the fourth persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire was launched.
The disciple of the Apostle John Polycarp, having learned that Roman soldiers had come to arrest him, tried to hide, but was soon found. The bishop fed his captors and asked them to let him pray. His zeal impressed the soldiers so much that they asked him for forgiveness. Polycarp was sentenced to be burned in the market square, having previously offered him to renounce his faith. But Polycarp replied: "How can I betray my King, who never betrayed me?" The firewood that had been set on fire flared up, but the flames did not touch his body. Then the executioner stabbed the bishop with his sword.
Under the emperor Marcus Aurelius, the deacon Sanctus from Vienna also died. He was tortured with red-hot copper plates placed on his naked body, which burned through his flesh to the bone.
Persecution under Septimius Severus
In the first decade of his reign, Septimius tolerated the followers of Christianity and was not afraid to keep them at court. But in 202, after the Parthian campaign, he tightened the religious policy of the Roman state. His biography says that he forbade the adoption of the Christian faith under the threat of terrible punishments, although he allowed those who had already been converted to profess the Christian religion in the Roman Empire. Many of the victims of the cruel emperor had a high social position, which greatly shocked society.
The sacrifice of Felicity and Perpetua, Christian martyrs, dates back to this time. "The Passion of Saints Perpetua, Felicity and those who suffered with them" is one of the earliest documents of this kind in the history of Christianity.
Perpetua was a young girl with a baby, came from a noble family. Felicitata served her and was pregnant at the time of her arrest. Together with them, Saturninus and Secundulus, as well as the slave Revocat, were imprisoned. All of them were preparing to accept Christianity, which was forbidden by the law of that time. They were taken into custody and soon joined by their mentor Satur, who did not want to go into hiding.
The Passion says that Perpetua had a hard time during the first days of her imprisonment, worrying about her baby, but the deacons managed to bribe the guards and hand over the child to her. After that, the dungeon became like a palace for her. Her father, a pagan, and the Roman procurator tried to persuade Perpetua to renounce Christ, but the girl was adamant.
Death took Secundul while he was in custody. Felicity was afraid that the law would not allow her to give her soul to the glory of Christ, since Roman law forbade the execution of pregnant women. But a few days before her execution, she gave birth to a daughter who was handed over to a free Christian.
Prisoners re-declared themselves Christians and were sentenced to death - being torn to pieces by wild animals; but the beasts could not kill them. Then the martyrs greeted each other with a brotherly kiss and were beheaded.
Persecution under Maximin the Thracian
Under Emperor Mark Clodius Maximin, the life of Christians in the Romanempire was under constant threat. At this time, mass executions were carried out, often up to fifty people had to be buried in one grave.
The Roman Bishop Pontianus was exiled to the mines of Sardinia for preaching, which at that time was equivalent to a death sentence. His successor Anter was killed 40 days after Pontian's death for insulting the government.
Despite the fact that Maximin persecuted mainly the clergy who were at the head of the Church, this did not prevent him from executing the Roman senator Pammach, his family and 42 other Christians. Their heads were hung on the city gates as a deterrent.
Christian persecution under Decius
No less difficult time for Christianity was the reign of Emperor Decius. The motives that pushed him to such cruelty are still unclear. Some sources say that the reason for the new persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (the events of those times are briefly discussed in the article) was hatred towards his predecessor, the Christian emperor Philip. According to other sources, Decius Trajan did not like that Christianity spread throughout the state overshadowed the pagan gods.
Whatever the origins of the eighth persecution of Christians, it is considered one of the most cruel. New problems were added to the old problems of Christians in the Roman Empire: the emperor issued two edicts, the first of which was directed against the supreme clergy, and the second ordered sacrifices to be made throughout the empire.
The new legislation was supposed to do two things at once. Every Roman citizen was required to go through a pagan ritual. So any person who was under suspicion could prove that the accusations against him were completely unfounded. With this trick, Decius not only found Christians who were immediately sentenced to death, but also tried to force them to renounce their faith.
The young man Peter, known for his intelligence and beauty, had to make a sacrifice to the Roman goddess of carnal love, Venus. The young man refused, declaring that he was surprised how one could worship a woman whose debauchery and baseness are spoken of in the Roman scriptures themselves. For this, Peter was stretched on a crushing wheel and tortured, and then, when he had not a single whole bone left, he was beheaded.
Quantin, the ruler of Sicily, wanted to get a girl named Agatha, but she refused him. Then, using his power, he gave her to a brothel. However, Agatha, being a true Christian, remained true to her principles. Enraged, Quantin ordered her to be tortured, whipped, and then put on hot coals mixed with glass. Agatha endured with dignity all the cruelties that fell to her lot and later died in prison from her wounds.
Christian persecution under Valerian
The first years of the emperor's reign were a time of calm for Christians in the Roman Empire. Some even thought that Valerian was very friendly towards them. But in 257, his opinion changed dramatically. Perhaps the reason lies in the influence of his friend Macrinus, who did not like the Christian religion.
First, Publius Valerian ordered all clerics to sacrifice to the Roman gods, for disobedience they were sent into exile. The ruler believed that, acting moderately, he would achieve a greater result in anti-Christian policy than the use of cruel measures. He hoped that the Christian bishops would renounce their faith, and their flock would follow them.
In the Golden Legend, a collection of Christian legends and descriptions of the lives of the saints, it is said that the imperial soldiers cut off the head of Stephen I right during the mass that the Pope served for his pasture. According to legend, his blood was not erased from the papal throne for a long time. His successor, Pope Sixtus II, was executed after the second order, on August 6, 259, along with six of his deacons.
Soon it turned out that such a policy was ineffective, and Valerian issued a new edict. Clerics were executed for disobedience, noble citizens and their families were deprived of property, and in case of disobedience they were killed.
This was the fate of two beautiful girls, Rufina and Secunda. They and their young people were Christians. When the persecution of Christians began in the Roman Empire, the young men were afraid of losing their we alth and renounced their faith. They tried to persuade their lovers, but the girls were adamant. Their former halves did not fail to write a denunciation against them, Rufina and Secunda were arrested and then beheaded.
Christian persecution under Aurelian
Under Emperor LuciusAurelians in the Roman Empire introduced the cult of the god "Invincible Sun", which has long overshadowed the pagan beliefs. According to the testimony of the rhetorician Lactantius, Aurelian wanted to organize a new persecution, incommensurable with the past in its cruelty, which would forever solve the problem of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Fortunately, he failed to carry out his plan. The emperor was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by his subjects.
The persecution of Christians under his leadership had a more local character. For example, a young man who lived near Rome sold his rich estate and distributed all the money to the poor, for which he was convicted and beheaded.
Persecution of Diocletian and Galerius
The most difficult test fell on the Christians of the Roman Empire under Diocletian and his eastern co-ruler Galeria. The last persecution then became known as the "Great Persecution".
The emperor sought to revive the dying pagan religion. He began the implementation of his plan in 303 in the eastern part of the country. Early in the morning, soldiers broke into the main Christian church and burned all the books. Diocletian and his adopted son Galerius wished to personally see the beginning of the end of the Christian faith, and what they had done seemed not enough. The building was destroyed to the ground.
The next step was the issuance of a decree according to which the Christians of Nicomedia were to be arrested and their places of worship burned. Galerius wanted more blood, and he ordered to set fire to his father's palace, blaming the Christians for everything. The flames of persecution engulfed the whole country. At that time the empire was divided into twoparts - Gaul and Britain. In Britain, which was in the power of Constantius, the second decree was not carried out.
For ten years, Christians were tortured, accused of the misfortunes of the state, diseases, fires. Entire families died in the fire, many had stones hung around their necks and drowned in the sea. Then the rulers of many Roman lands asked the emperor to stop, but it was too late. Christians were mutilated, many were deprived of eyes, nose, ears.
The Edict of Milan and its meaning
The cessation of persecution dates back to 313 AD. This important change in the position of Christians is associated with the creation of the Edict of Milan by Emperors Constantine and Licinius.
This document was a continuation of the Edict of Nicomedia, which was only a step towards ending the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The Edict of Toleration was issued by Galerius in 311. Although he is considered guilty of starting the Great Persecution, he still admitted that the persecution had failed. Christianity has not disappeared, but rather strengthened its position.
The document conditionally legalized the practice of the Christian religion in the country, but at the same time, Christians had to pray for the emperor and Rome, they did not receive their churches and temples back.
The Edict of Milan deprived paganism of the role of the state religion. Christians were given back their property, which they had lost as a result of persecution. The 300-year period of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire has ended.
Terrible torture during the persecution of Christians
Stories of how Christians were tortured in Romeempires, entered the lives of many saints. Although the Roman legal system favored crucifixion or being eaten by lions, more sophisticated methods of torture can be found in Christian history.
For example, Saint Lawrence devoted his life to caring for the poor and overseeing the property of the church. One day, the Roman prefect wanted to seize the money kept by Lawrence. The deacon asked for three days to collect, and during that time he distributed everything to the poor. The angry Roman ordered that the recalcitrant priest be severely punished. A metal grate was placed over the hot coals, on which Lavrenty was laid. His body slowly charred, his flesh hissed, but the Perfect did not wait for an apology. Instead, he heard the following words: "You baked me on one side, so turn it over to the other and eat my body!".
Roman emperor Decius hated Christians for their refusal to worship him as a deity. Learning that his best soldiers had secretly converted to the Christian faith, he tried to bribe them into returning. In response, the soldiers left the city and took refuge in a cave. Decius ordered the shelter to be bricked up, and all seven died of dehydration and starvation.
Cecilia of Rome from an early age professed Christianity. Her parents married her to a pagan, but the girl did not resist, but only prayed for the help of the Lord. She was able to dissuade her husband from carnal love and brought him to Christianity. Together they helped the poor throughout Rome. Almachius, the prefect of Turkey, ordered Caecilia and Valerian to sacrifice to the pagan gods, and in response to their refusal, he sentenced them to death. Roman justice was to be done away from the city. On the way, the young couple was able to convert several soldiers to Christianity and their boss, Maxim, who invited the Christians home and, together with his family, converted to the faith. The next day, after the execution of Valerian, Maxim said that he saw the ascent of the soul of the deceased to heaven, for which he was beaten to death with whips. For several days, Cecilia was kept in a bath of boiling water, but the maiden martyr survived. When the executioner tried to cut off her head, he only managed to inflict mortal wounds. Saint Cecilia remained alive for several more days, continuing to turn people to the Lord.
But one of the most terrible fates befell Saint Victor the Maurus. He was preaching in secret in Milan when he was captured and tied to a horse and dragged through the streets. The crowd demanded renunciation, but the preacher remained faithful to the religion. For refusal, he was crucified and then thrown into prison. Victor converted several guards to Christianity, for which Emperor Maximilian soon executed them. The preacher himself was ordered to offer a sacrifice to the Roman god. Instead, he attacked the altar with rage. Unbowed, he was thrown into a stone mill and crushed.
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Conclusion
In 379, power over the state passed into the hands of Emperor Theodosius I, the last ruler of the unified Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan was terminated, according to which the country had to remain neutral in relation to religion. This event was like a conclusion to the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. February 27, 380 Theodosius the Greatproclaimed Christianity the only religion acceptable to Roman citizens.
Thus ended the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. 15 sheets of text cannot contain all the important information about those times. However, we tried to describe the very essence of those events in the most accessible and detailed way.
