In Europe during the early Middle Ages, a world system based on biblical texts dominated. After some time, it was replaced by dogmatized Aristotelianism and the geocentric system proposed by Ptolemy. The foundations of the latter called into question the data of astronomical observations, gradually accumulated in the course of history. The intricacy, complexity and imperfection of the Ptolemaic system became more and more evident. Many attempts have been made to increase its accuracy, but they have only made it more difficult. Back in the 13th century, Alfonso X, the Castilian king, said that if he had the opportunity to advise God in creating the world, he would advise to arrange it easier.
The heliocentric system of the world was proposed by Copernicus. It has become a real revolution in astronomy. After reading this article, you will get acquainted with Copernicus and his contribution to science. But first, we will talk about what was proposed before him by Ptolemy.
The Ptolemaic system of the world and its shortcomings
The system created by Copernicus' predecessor did not allow for accurate predictions. ExceptIn addition, she suffered from unsystematic, lack of integrity, internal unity. The system of the world according to Ptolemy (his portrait is presented above) assumed the study of each planet in isolation, separately from the others. Each celestial body, as this scientist argued, had its own laws of motion and an epicyclic system. The motion of planets in geocentric systems was described using a number of independent, equal mathematical models. The geocentric theory, strictly speaking, did not develop into a system, since the planetary system (or system of planets) was not its object. It de alt exclusively with individual movements that celestial bodies make.
It should be noted that with the help of the geocentric theory it was possible to calculate only the approximate location of certain celestial bodies. But it was not possible to determine their location in space or true remoteness. Ptolemy considered these problems completely unsolvable. The new system of the world, heliocentric, appeared due to the installation on the search for consistency and internal unity.
The need to reform the calendar
It should be noted that the heliocentric theory also arose in connection with the need to reform the Julian calendar. Two main points in it (the full moon and the equinox) have lost touch with the astronomical events that actually took place. In the 4th century A. D. e. The date of the vernal equinox according to the calendar fell on March 21. In 325, the Council of Nicaea fixed this number. It was used as an important starting point in calculating the date of Easter, the main Christian holiday. By the 16th century, the date of the vernal equinox (March 21) was already 10 days behind the actual date.
The Julian calendar has been unsuccessfully improved since the 8th century. At the Lateran Council in Rome (1512-17) the acuteness of the problem of the calendar was noted. A number of well-known astronomers have been asked to solve it. Among them was Nicolaus Copernicus. However, he refused, because he considered the theory of the motion of the Moon and the Sun insufficiently accurate and developed. But they were the basis of the calendar at that time. Nevertheless, the proposal that N. Copernicus received became for him one of the motives for working on improving the geocentric theory. As a result of this work, a new world system appeared.
Copernicus' doubts about the truth of Ptolemy's theory
It was Nicholas who was destined to make one of the greatest revolutions in the history of astronomy, followed by a revolution in natural science. Copernicus, having become acquainted with the Ptolemaic system at the end of the 15th century, appreciated his mathematical genius. However, soon the scientist began to doubt the truth of this theory. Doubts were replaced by the belief that there are deep contradictions in geocentrism.
Copernicus - representative of the Renaissance
Nicholas Copernicus was the first scientist to look at the thousand-year experience of the development of science through the eyes of a man of a new era. It's about the Renaissance. How true herrepresentative, Copernicus showed himself to be a confident, bold innovator. His predecessors lacked the courage to abandon the geocentric principle. They were engaged in the improvement of certain small details of the theory. The Copernican system of the world suggested a break with the thousand-year-old astronomical tradition. The thinker was looking for harmony and simplicity in nature, the key to understanding the unity of many seemingly disparate phenomena. The system of the world of Nicolaus Copernicus was the result of the search of its creator.
Main works of Copernicus
Basic principles of heliocentric astronomy Copernicus outlined between 1505 and 1507 in the "Small Commentary". By 1530, he completed the theoretical processing of the astronomical data he received. However, only in 1543 one of the most important creations of human thought in the history of the world appeared - the work "On the rotations of the celestial spheres". This work presents a mathematical theory that explains the complex apparent movements of the Moon, the Sun, the five planets, and the sphere of stars. The appendix to the work contains a catalog of stars. The work itself is provided with mathematical tables.
The essence of the heliocentric system of the world
Copernicus placed the Sun at the center of the world. He pointed out that the planets were moving around him. Among them was the Earth, first identified as a "moving star". The sphere of stars, according to Copernicus, is separated from the planetary system by a huge distance. The conclusion of the thinker about the great remoteness of this sphere is explained by the heliocentric principle. The fact is that only in this way could Copernicus reconcile his theory withthe apparent absence of shifts in the stars. We are talking about those displacements that should appear due to the movement of the observer together with the planet Earth.
The accuracy and simplicity of the new system
The system proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus was more accurate and simpler than the Ptolemaic system. It immediately gained wide practical application. Based on this system, the Prussian Tables were compiled, the length of the tropical year was calculated more accurately. In 1582, the long-awaited reform of the calendar was carried out - a new style appeared, the Gregorian.
The lower complexity of the new theory, as well as the greater accuracy of calculating the positions of the planets based on heliocentric tables, which were obtained at first, are by no means the main advantages of the Copernican system. Moreover, in the calculations, his theory turned out to be only slightly simpler than the Ptolemaic one. As for the accuracy of calculating the positions of the planets, it practically did not differ from it if it was necessary to calculate the changes observed over a long period of time.
At first, "Prussian tables" gave a little more accuracy. This was explained, however, not simply by the introduction of the heliocentric principle. The fact is that Copernicus used a more advanced mathematical apparatus for his calculations. However, the "Prussian tables" soon also diverged from the data obtained during the observations.
The enthusiastic attitude towards the theory proposed by Copernicus was gradually replaced by disappointment in it among those whoexpected to have an immediate practical effect. For more than half a century, from the inception of the Copernican system to the discovery by Galileo of the phases of Venus in 1616, there was no direct evidence that the planets move around the Sun. Thus, the truth of the new system was not confirmed by observations. What was the true power and attraction of the Copernican theory, which caused a real revolution in natural science?
Copernicus and Aristotelian cosmology
As you know, any new one appears on the basis of the old one. In this regard, Copernicus was no exception. The one who created the heliocentric system of the world shared many of the provisions of Aristotelian cosmology. For example, the Universe seemed to him a closed space, which is limited by a special sphere of fixed stars. Copernicus did not deviate from the Aristotelian dogma, and in accordance with it, the movements of celestial bodies are always circular and uniform. Copernicus was even more conservative in this respect than Ptolemy. The latter introduced the concept of an equant and did not deny the possibility of the existence of an uneven motion of celestial bodies.
The main merit of Copernicus
The merit of Copernicus was that, unlike his predecessors, he tried to create a planetary theory, distinguished by logical harmony and simplicity. The scientist saw in the absence of consistency, harmony and simplicity the fundamental failure of the system proposed by Ptolemy. It lacked a single core principle that would explain the patterns of motion of various celesti altel.
The revolutionary significance of the principle proposed by Copernicus was that Nicholas presented a unified system of motion of all planets, explained many effects previously incomprehensible to scientists. For example, using the concept of the daily and annual movements of our planet, he explained the main features of such intricate movements of celestial bodies as loops, standing, backward movements. The Copernican system made it possible to understand why the sky moves daily. From now on, the loop-like movements of the planets were explained by the fact that the Earth revolves around the Sun with a cycle of one year.
Departure from the scholastic tradition
The Copernican theory determined the emergence of a new method of understanding nature, based on a scientific approach. According to the scholastic tradition followed by his predecessors, in order to know the essence of an object, one does not need to study its external side in detail. Scholastics believed that the essence can be comprehended directly by the mind. In contrast to them, Copernicus showed that it can be understood only after a thorough study of the phenomenon under consideration, its contradictions and patterns. The heliocentric system of the world of N. Copernicus became a powerful impetus in the development of science.
How did the church react to the new teaching
The Catholic Church at first did not attach much importance to the teachings proposed by Copernicus. But when it became clear that it undermines the foundations of religion, its supporters began to be persecuted. For spreading the teachings of Copernicus in 1600was burned at the stake by Giordano Bruno, an Italian thinker. The scientific dispute between the supporters of Ptolemy and Copernicus turned into a struggle between reactionary and progressive forces. In the end, the latter won.
