Roman military ammunition and weapons were produced during the expansion of the empire in large quantities according to established patterns, and they were used depending on the category of troops. These standard models were called res militares. The constant improvement of the protective properties of armor and the quality of weapons, the regular practice of its use led the Roman Empire to military superiority and numerous victories.
Equipment gave the Romans a clear advantage over their enemies, especially the strength and quality of their "armor". This does not mean that the common soldier was better equipped than the we althy among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, their fighting equipment was not of the best quality than that used by most of the Empire's opponents, but the armor significantly reduced the number of deaths among the Romans on the battlefield.
Military Features
Initially, the Romans produced weapons based on the experience and samples of Greek and Etruscan masters. They learned a lot from their opponents, for example, when faced with the Celts, theyadopted some types of their equipment, the model of the helmet was “borrowed” from the Gauls, and the anatomical shell was “borrowed” from the ancient Greeks.
As soon as Roman armor and weapons were officially adopted by the state, they became the standard for almost the entire imperial world. The standard weapons and ammunition changed several times during the long Roman history, but they were never individual, although each soldier decorated his armor at his own discretion and "pocket". However, the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome was quite long and complex.
Pugyo daggers
Pugio was a dagger borrowed from the Spaniards and used as a weapon by the Roman soldiers. Like other items of equipment for legionnaires, it underwent some changes during the 1st century. It typically had a large, leaf-shaped blade, 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more wide. The middle "vein" (groove) ran along the entire length of each side of its cutting part, or simply protruded only from the front. The main changes: the blade became thinner, approximately 3 mm, the handle was made of metal and inlaid with silver. A distinctive feature of the pugio was that it could be used both for stabbing and from top to bottom.
History
About 50 AD the rod version of the dagger was introduced. This in itself did not lead to significant changes in the appearance of the pugio, but some of the later blades were narrow (less than 3.5 cm wide), had a small ormissing "waist", although they remained double-edged.
Throughout the entire period of their use as part of ammunition, the handles remained about the same. They were made either from two layers of horn, or a combination of wood and bone, or covered with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with silver inlay. It was 10–12 cm long, but rather narrow. An extension or a small circle in the middle of the handle made the grip more secure.
Gladius
This was the customary name for any kind of sword, although in the days of the Roman Republic the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to a medium-length weapon (60 cm-69 cm) that was used by Roman legionnaires from the 3rd century BC.
Several different models are known. Among collectors and historical reenactors, the two main types of swords are known as gladius (according to the places where they were found during excavations) - Mainz (short version with a blade length of 40-56 cm, a width of 8 cm and a weight of 1.6 kg) and Pompeii (length from 42 up to 55 cm, width 5 cm, weight 1 kg). Later archaeological finds have confirmed the use of an earlier version of this weapon: the long sword used by the Celts and taken over by the Romans after the Battle of Cannae. Legionnaires wore their swords on their right thigh. By the changes that have occurred with the gladius, one can trace the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome.
Spata
This was the name of any sword in late Latin (spatha), but most often one of the long variants characteristic of the middle eraRoman Empire. In the 1st century, the Roman cavalry began to use longer double-edged swords (75 to 100 cm), and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, infantry also used them for a while, gradually moving towards carrying spears.
Gasta
This is a Latin word meaning "piercing spear". Gastas (in some versions of hasta) were in service with the Roman legionnaires, later these soldiers were called gastati. However, in Republican times, they were re-equipped with pilum and gladius, and only the triarii still used these spears.
They were about 1.8 meters (six feet) long. The shaft was usually made of wood, while the "head" was made of iron, although early versions had bronze tips.
There were lighter and shorter spears, such as those used by the velites (rapid reaction troops) and the legions of the early Republic.
Pilum
Pilum (plural of pila) was a throwing heavy spear two meters long and consisted of a shaft from which protruded an iron shank about 7 mm in diameter and 60-100 cm long with a pyramidal head. The pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms.
Spears were designed to pierce both shield and armor from a distance, but if they just got stuck in them, they were hard to remove. The iron tang would bend on impact, weighing down the enemy shield and preventing immediate reuse of the pilum. With a very strong blow, the shaft could break, leavingan enemy with a curved shank in the shield.
Roman archers (sagittarii)
Archers were armed with compound bows (arcus) shooting arrows (sagitta). This type of "long-range" weapon was made from horn, wood, and animal tendons held together with glue. As a rule, saggitaria (a kind of gladiators) took part exclusively in large-scale battles, when an additional massive blow to the enemy at a distance was required. This weapon was later used to train recruits on arcubus ligneis with wooden inserts. Reinforcing bars have been found in many excavations, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.
Hiroballista
Also known as the manuballista. She was a crossbow sometimes used by the Romans. The ancient world knew many variants of mechanical hand weapons, similar to the late medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is the subject of ongoing scholarly debate. Roman authors, such as Vegetius, repeatedly note the use of small arms, such as arcuballista and manuballista, respectively cheiroballista.
While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to hand-held throwing weapons, there is disagreement as to whether they were recurve or mechanized bows.
The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 - after 146) describes in his treatise on the Roman cavalry "Tactics" shooting from a mechanical hand weapon from a horse. Sculptural bas-reliefs in Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows inhunting scenes. They are remarkably similar to the late medieval crossbow.
Chiroballista infantrymen carried dozens of lead throwing darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective flight range of up to 30m, much more than a spear. The darts were attached to the back of the shield.
Digging tools
Ancient writers and politicians, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of shovels and other digging tools as important tools of war. The Roman legion, while on the march, dug a ditch and rampart around their camps every night. They were also useful as improvised weapons.
Armor
Not all troops wore reinforced Roman armor. Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, made little or no use of armor. This allowed both faster movement and cheaper equipment for the army.
The legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used different types of protection. Some wore chain mail, while others wore scaled Roman armor or a segmented lorica or metal plated cuirass.
This last type was a sophisticated piece of armament that, under certain circumstances, provided superior protection for mail armor (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata). Modern spear tests have shown that this species was impervious to most direct hits.
However, unlined was uncomfortable: the reenactors confirmed that wearing underwear, knownlike subarmalis, it freed the wearer from bruises caused by wearing the armor for a long time, as well as from a blow inflicted by a weapon on the armor.
Auxilia
3rd century troops are depicted wearing Roman mail armor (mostly) or standard 2nd century auxilia. The artistic account confirms that most of the soldiers of the late Empire wore metal armor, despite Vegetius' claims to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the treatise Notitia show that armorers were producing mail armor in the late 4th century. They also produced the armor of the gladiators of Ancient Rome.
Roman armor Lorica segmentata
It was an ancient form of body armor and was mainly used at the beginning of the Empire, but this Latin name was first applied in the 16th century (ancient form unknown). Roman armor itself consisted of wide iron bands (hoops) attached to the back and chest with leather straps.
The stripes were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping each other, they surrounded the torso, fastened front and back with copper hooks that were connected with leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected with additional bands ("shoulder protectors") and chest and back plates.
The uniform of a Roman legionnaire's armor could be folded very compactly as it was divided into four parts. It has been modified several times during its use: the currently recognized types are Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50 AD), Corbridge (c. 40 AD to 120) and Newstead (ca. 120,possibly early 4th century).
There is a fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Giulia in Romania, where a "hybrid" variant appears to have existed: the shoulders are protected by scaly armor, while the torso hoops are smaller and deeper.
The earliest evidence of wearing the lorica segmanta dates back to about 9 BC. e. (Dangstetten). The armor of the Roman legionary was used in service for quite a long time: until the 2nd century AD, judging by the number of finds from that period (more than 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain).
However, even in the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the hamata lorica, as it was still the standard uniform for both heavy infantry and cavalry. The last recorded use of this armor is from the late 3rd century AD (León, Spain).
There are two opinions as to who used this form of armor in ancient Rome. One of them states that only legionnaires (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmenta. Auxiliary forces more often wore lorica hamata or squamata.
The second view is that both the legionnaires and the auxiliaries used "segmentate" armor of the Roman warrior, and this is somewhat supported by archaeological finds.
The lorica's segmentation provided more protection than the hamata, but it was also harder to manufacture and repair. The costs associated with the manufacture of segments for this type of Roman armor canexplain the return to plain mail after the 3rd or 4th century. At that time, the trends in the development of military force were changing. Alternatively, all forms of Roman warrior armor may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry diminished in favor of fast mounted troops.
Lorika Hamata
She was one of the types of chain mail used in the Roman Republic and spread throughout the Empire as standard Roman armor and weapons for primary heavy infantry and secondary troops (auxilia). It was mostly made of iron, although sometimes bronze was used instead.
The rings were tied together, alternating closed elements in the form of washers with rivets. This gave a very flexible, reliable and durable armor. Each ring had an inner diameter of 5 to 7 mm and an outer diameter of 7 to 9 mm. On the shoulders of the hamata lorica were flaps similar to the shoulders of the Greek linothorax. They started from the middle of the back, went to the front of the body and were connected with copper or iron hooks that were attached to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings made up one hamat lorika.
Although labor intensive to manufacture, it is believed that with good maintenance they could be used continuously for several decades. Such was the usefulness of the armor that the late introduction of the famous lorica segment, which provided greater protection, did not lead to the complete disappearance of the hamata.
Lorica squamata
Lorica squamata was kindscale armor used during the Roman Republic and later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn onto a fabric base. It was worn, and this can be seen in ancient images, by ordinary musicians, centurions, cavalry troops and even auxiliary infantry, but legionnaires could also wear it. The shirt of the armor was shaped in the same way as the lorica hamata: from the middle of the thigh with shoulder reinforcements or provided with a cape.
Individual scales were either iron or bronze or even alternating metals on the same shirt. The plates were not very thick: 0.5 to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 inches), which may have been the usual range. However, since the scales overlapped in all directions, multiple layers provided good protection.
Size ranged from 0.25" (6mm) wide to 1.2cm high to 2" (5cm) wide and 3" (8cm) high, with the most common sizes being were approximately 1.25 by 2.5 cm. Many had rounded bottoms, while others had pointed or flat bases with cut corners. The plates could be flat, slightly convex, or have a raised middle web or edge. All of them on the shirt were basically the same size, however, the scales from different chain mail varied significantly.
They were connected in horizontal rows, which were then sewn to the backing. Thus, each of them had from four to 12 holes: two or more on each side forattaching to the next in the row, one or two at the top to attach to the substrate, and sometimes at the bottom to attach to the base or to each other.
The shirt could be opened either at the back or at the bottom on one side to make it easier to put on, and the opening was pulled together with strings. Much has been written about the supposed vulnerability of this ancient Roman armor.
No specimens of complete Squamata scaly lorica have been found, but there have been a few archeological finds of fragments of such shirts. The original Roman armor is quite expensive and only extremely we althy collectors can afford it.
Parma
It was a round shield with three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but solidly built and considered an effective defense. This was provided by the use of iron in its structure. He had a handle and shield (umbo). Finds of Roman armor are often dug up from the ground with these shields.
Parma was used in the Roman army by units of the lower class: velites. Their equipment consisted of a shield, a dart, a sword and a helmet. Parma was later replaced by scutum.
Roman helmets
Galea or Cassis varied greatly in shape. One early type was the Montefortino Bronze Helmet (cup-shaped with a back visor and side shields) used by the armies of the Republic until the 1st century AD.
It was replaced by Gallic counterparts (they were called "imperial"), providing head protection on both sidessoldier.
Today they are very fond of being made by craftsmen who create the armor of Roman legionnaires with their own hands.
Baldrick
In another way, a baldrick, bowdrick, bauldrick, as well as other rare or obsolete pronunciations, is a belt worn on one shoulder, which is usually used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or another tool, such as a horn or a drum. The word can also refer to any belt in general, but its use in this context is perceived as poetic or archaic. These belts were a mandatory attribute of the armor of the Roman Empire.
Application
Baldriks have been used since ancient times as part of military clothing. Without exception, all warriors wore belts with their Roman armor (there are some photos in this article). The design provided more weight support than a standard waist belt without restricting arm movement and allowing easy access to the item being carried.
In later times, for example, in the British army of the late 18th century, a pair of white baldriks crossed on the chest was used. Alternatively, especially in modern times, it may serve a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.
B altei
In ancient Roman times, a b alteus (or b alteus) was a type of baldrik commonly used to hang a sword. It was a sash worn over the shoulder and slant down to the side, usually made of leather, often embellished with precious stones, metals, or both.
There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, especially soldiers, and calledsintu, which was fastened around the waist. It was also an attribute of Roman anatomical armor.
Many non-military or paramilitary organizations include b alteas as part of their dress code. The Colored Corps of the Knights of Columbus 4th Class uses it as part of their uniform. B alteus supports a ceremonial (decorative) sword. The reader can see a photo of the armor of the Roman legionnaires along with the B alteas in this article.
Roman belt
Cingulum Militaryare is a piece of ancient Roman military equipment in the form of a belt decorated with metal fittings worn by soldiers and officials as a rank rank. Many examples have been found in the Roman province of Pannonia.
Kaligi
Kaliga were heavy boots with thick soles. Caliga comes from the Latin callus, meaning "hard". So named because hobnails (nails) were hammered into the leather soles before being sewn onto the softer leather lining.
They were worn by the lower ranks of the Roman cavalry and infantry, and possibly some centurions. The strong connection of the kalig with ordinary soldiers is evident, since the latter were called kaligati ("loaded"). At the beginning of the first century AD, two or three-year-old Gaius was nicknamed "Caligula" ("little shoe") by soldiers because he wore miniature soldier's clothes complete with viburnums.
They were tougher than closed shoes. In the Mediterranean, this could be an advantage. In the cold and humid climate of northern Britain, additional woven socks or woolin winter they might have helped to insulate the feet, but the caligas were replaced there towards the end of the second century AD by the more practical "closed boots" (carbatinae) in civilian style.
By the end of the 4th century they were used throughout the Empire. The Emperor Diocletian's decree on prices (301) includes a fixed price on carbatinae without inscriptions made for civilian men, women and children.
The outsole of the kaliga and the openwork upper part were carved from a single piece of high quality cowhide or bullhide. The lower part was attached to the midsole with latches, usually iron but sometimes bronze.
The pinned ends were covered with an insole. Like all Roman shoes, the caliga was flat-soled. It was laced up the center of the foot and at the top of the ankle. Isidore of Seville believed that the name "caliga" comes from the Latin "callus" ("hard skin"), or from the fact that the boot was laced or tied (ligere).
Shoe styles varied from manufacturer to manufacturer and region to region. The placement of the nails in it is less variable: they functioned to provide support to the foot, much like modern athletic shoes do. At least one provincial military boot manufacturer has been identified by name.
Pteruga
These are strong skirts made of leather or multi-layered fabric (linen), and stripes or lappets sewn on them, worn around the waist by Roman and Greek soldiers. Also, in a similar way, they had stripes sewn on their shirts, similar toepaulettes protecting the shoulders. Both sets are usually interpreted as belonging to the same garment worn under the cuirass, although in the linen version (linothorax) they may have been non-removable.
The cuirass itself can be built in different ways: lamellar bronze, linothorax, scales, lamellar or chain mail. The overlays can be arranged as a single row of longer strips or two layers of short overlapping blades of graduated length.
During the Middle Ages, especially in Byzantium and the Middle East, these stripes were used on the back and sides of helmets to protect the neck while leaving it free enough to move. However, no archaeological remains of leather protective helmets have been found. Artistic representations of such elements can also be interpreted as vertically stitched quilted textile protective covers.
