European culture X-XIV centuries. still amazes researchers with its achievements in the field of art. Gothic and Romanesque styles had a tremendous impact not only on medieval architecture. Their features can be traced in painting, literature, sculpture, music and even the fashion of that distant era.
Romanesque style, which became the first significant cultural phenomenon of the feudal era, existed from the end of the X to the XII century. It was formed at a difficult time, when Europe broke up into small feudal states that were at enmity with each other. Almost all types of art, some to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent, were influenced by the Romanesque style, which became a natural stage in the evolution of medieval European culture.
Between Antiquity and Modernity
From the moment in 476 Odoacer, the leader of one of the Germanic tribes, overthrew the last Western RomanEmperor Romulus Augustulus, historians traditionally begin the countdown of the next era - the Middle Ages. It is generally accepted that this period ended at the end of the 15th century, when Europeans began to discover and actively explore new continents for them.
The name "Middle Ages" was invented by Italian humanists in the 15th century. They believed that the time was coming for the revival of ancient culture, knowledge, traditions and values that had been forgotten for thousands of years. Humanists were sure that nothing worthy had happened since the fall of Rome, that it was a dark period of decline and barbarism. Therefore, with a fair amount of condescension, they called the past millennium the Middle Ages - the gap between Antiquity and the emerging New Age.
Partly the humanists were right: the once prosperous cities and good roads fell into decay, the ancient culture was almost forgotten. Religious fanatics deliberately destroyed her legacy. But on the other hand, the Middle Ages had a significant impact on the development of human culture. It was during this period that modern European languages were formed, universities were opened, works were written that still excite us, many cities were built, majestic cathedrals were built, a new style in art was born - Romanesque.
Spiritual activity also increased: the pilgrimage became widespread. On the roads of Europe, thousands of people went to monasteries to worship relics and relics.
Origin of the name
A new direction in cultureIt is no coincidence that it received the name of the Romanesque style, since it was based on techniques developed in ancient Rome. Of course, he had no direct relation to pagan culture; on the contrary, the new style was completely formed on the basis of Christian doctrine. Nevertheless, much in it was reminiscent of Antiquity: monumental buildings were built, the same aesthetic standards were observed that the architects of Rome adhered to. For example, there were no small details, excessive decor, the emphasis in the buildings was on powerful masonry. The Romanesque style became pan-European in the Middle Ages, its canons were followed in all states of the continent, including Ancient Russia.
Highlights
The new direction in art completely rejected the supply of decorative and ornamental means inherent in ancient architecture and its inherent proportional forms. The little that still survived was coarsened and changed.
Art historians refer to the features of the Romanesque style:
- its emotional beginning, psychologism;
- unity of various types of arts, among which architecture occupied a leading place;
- theocentrism (God is at the center of everything);
- religious nature of art;
- impersonality (it was believed that the hand of the master is directed by God, so the names of medieval creators are almost unknown to us).
The stylistic features of romance are:
- huge buildings built entirely of stone;
- semicircular vaulted arch;
- massive andthick walls;
- reliefs;
- wall paintings;
- planar, non-volumetric images;
- sculpture and painting were subordinated to architecture and used in temples and monasteries.
Major Romanesque architecture:
- Feudal castle. Usually it was located on a hill, convenient for observation and defense. A quadrangular or round tower - donjon, was the core of the fortress.
- Temple. It was built in the tradition of the basilica. It was a longitudinal room with three (rarely five) naves.
- A monastery complex with narrow windows and thick walls.
And the medieval cities themselves, with the market square in the center where the cathedral was built, looked more like fortresses surrounded by massive walls.
Romanesque architecture in the Middle Ages
XI-XIII centuries - this is the time of the brilliant flowering of European art. Knightly castles and royal palaces, bridges and town halls were erected. The development of the architecture of the Middle Ages, as well as other areas of public life of this period, was greatly influenced by Christianity. After the fall of the Roman Empire, state borders and rulers changed, only the powerful Christian church remained unshakable. To strengthen her influence, she resorted to special methods. One of them was the construction of majestic temples on the central squares of the cities. It was sometimes the only tall stone building that was visible from a distance.
As already mentioned, dominated inIn Europe in the 11th-12th centuries (and in some countries even in the 13th), the architectural style was called Romanesque from the Latin word Roma (Rome), since the masters of that time used some ancient Roman construction techniques. In the West, the basilica survived, unlike Byzantium, where it eventually gave way to a cross-domed church. True, its forms have become more complex and improved. So, the size of the eastern part of the church increased, and under its floor there was a crypt - a secret room. Holy relics were kept here and church ministers were buried.
All Romanesque buildings, whether basilicas or castles, had similar features:
- monumentality;
- slightly dissected forms;
- Severe fortified nature of the architecture;
- the predominance of straight lines (the only exception was semicircular arches).
At the intersections of busy roads
Certainly, in the XI-XII centuries the leading role belonged to church architecture. By that time, the pontificate had concentrated incredible we alth in its hands, part of which went to the construction of temples and monasteries. In the same period, the number of pilgrims increased unusually, so the old Romanesque basilicas, located on the most crowded routes, could no longer accommodate all the pilgrims. For this reason, the construction of temples begins to experience a real boom. After about the year 1000, dozens of basilicas were rebuilt in a short time, especially in Italy and France. European peoples competed with each other, trying to surpass the decoration and size of their temples.
However, the first Romanesque churches were not elegant, they were relatively low and massive. The windows were small, the walls were thick, since the temple was primarily considered as a place of refuge, both spiritual and physical (during sieges). The masonry walls reached 3, and sometimes up to 5 meters in thickness.
Decoration was rarely used in the design of the church facade, the external decoration was very modest, with a few sculptural elements. All attention was focused on the interior decor. The interior was decorated in large quantities with frescoes (paintings on wet plaster), reliefs and sculptures inherited from the ancient world. This tradition actively developed in the Middle Ages, becoming one of the characteristic features of the Romanesque style.
What were the basilicas?
These were three- or five-nave rectangular structures. Initially, the central nave had a wooden ceiling, but over time they learned to cover it with stone vaults. However, only the extremely strong walls and pillars that separated the naves could withstand their pressure. The narrow, loophole-like windows gave additional strength to the walls. Therefore, outwardly, Romanesque churches often resembled fortresses, while twilight reigned inside them.
Powerful towers, which rose both at the intersection of the transept and the main nave, and at the eastern wall and at the corners of the western facade, only strengthened the similarity of the basilica to the fortress. In addition, this gave severity, majesty and even severity to the external appearance of the temple. During the wars, Romanesque basilicas servedsafe haven, along with fortresses.
The abundance of semicircular arches is another notable feature of the Romanesque style. In medieval temples, they were used not only in doors and windows, but also in the design of facades and interiors.
The western part of the Romanesque basilica was extremely lavishly decorated. This served two purposes: to attract believers and to intimidate those who lead unrighteous lives. Therefore, the plots for church tympanums (a recessed niche above the entrance, framed by an arch) were chosen accordingly.
The Abbey Church of Cluny is a wonderful example of Romanesque temple architecture. Moreover, the techniques used for its construction had a considerable influence on medieval craftsmen.
Features of the Romanesque style in ancient Russian architecture
Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was famous for its white stone architecture. The construction of Orthodox churches reached its peak under Andrei Bogolyubsky. The prince invited German masters who enriched Russian architecture with the techniques of Western European Romanesque architecture. Since those times, the Golden Gates in Vladimir, once part of the city wall, have survived to this day. Another example of the Romanesque style is the Assumption Church. In the neighborhood with him in Vladimir, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral was later erected, distinguished by the richness of white stone carvings and beautiful frescoes.
Knight's Castles
Romanesque style in the Middle Ages was reflected in the construction of fortresses. Period XI-12th century - this is the time of the development of knightly culture and the formation of feudal relations. Until the second half of the 10th century, castles were built of wood on natural hills or mounds. Later, such fortresses began to be built in accordance with Romanesque traditions and according to special rules. They had special watchtowers, the main of which was the donjon. The only entrance was from inside the castle complex. The furniture was to match the premises: massive, functional, decorated to a minimum, in a word, fully consistent with the prevailing Romanesque style.
The fortifications had their own small church, a prison and many vaults that could withstand long sieges.
Conwy Fortress (Wales, UK) is a good example of a Romanesque castle. It is one of the largest surviving medieval fortresses. The castle was built by order of Edward the First at the end of the 13th century. Conwy is surrounded by 8 cylindrical towers, into which the sun hardly looks, and massive defensive walls. Their masonry was practically not damaged for 800 years, although the fortress was repeatedly subjected to sieges. The king spent a fabulous amount on its construction - 15 thousand pounds sterling, which at the current rate is 193 million euros. Conwy Castle, whose territory is divided into an outer and inner courtyard, was built on a hill and was considered impregnable. To protect the fortress walls from possible undermining, they were erected on solid rocky rock.
Fineart
Until the 10th century, there were practically no images of a person in European painting. It abounded with plant, animal and geometric ornaments. But with the birth of the Romanesque style, the ornamental art was replaced by the image of a person: saints and biblical characters. Of course, this was still a conditional reproduction, but, undoubtedly, it marked a big step forward.
In the decoration of Romanesque churches, frescoes and stained-glass windows played a large part. The walls, vaults, columns and capitals of the basilicas were painted with multicolored bright frescoes. Such churches were "inhabited" by a large number of fantastic creatures carved in stone. Medieval sculptors borrowed them from the pagan past of the Germanic and Celtic tribes.
Unfortunately, only a small part of the monumental painting in the Romanesque style has survived to this day. Such examples are the frescoes of the monastery churches of Santa Maria de Igasel (Spain) and Saint-Savin-sur-Gartamp (France).
In the latter case, we are talking about a large cycle of murals that occupy the entire space of the vault, which succinctly depicts various biblical scenes. On a light background, figures outlined by a bright outline clearly emerge.
Secular arts and crafts can be judged by the embroidered tapestry from Bayeux. On a long strip of the carpet, episodes of the conquest of England by the Norman knights in 1066 are woven.
In addition to frescoes, book miniatures were widely used in the Romanesque era, distinguished by pomp and brilliance. ATmonasteries had special workshops - scriptoria, where manuscripts were copied and decorated. The book miniature of that period strove for narrative. The image, like the text, was divided into paragraphs - the visual units of the story. However, there were illustrations that were independent and reflected the essence of the story. Or the artists inscribed the text into the strict geometric shapes of the drawing. The miniatures that illustrated the historical chronicles were distinguished by a great variety.
Heroic epic
Romanesque style in art also appeared in literature. Several new genres arose, each of which corresponded to the lifestyle, requirements and level of education of a particular class. The most widespread, of course, was Christian literature. In addition to the Bible, religious treatises and teachings of the Fathers of the Church, which were read mainly by theologians, biographies of canonized laymen and clergy were popular.
In addition to church literature, secular literature also developed. It is noteworthy that her best works continue to be read even in our age of high technology. The Romanesque era is the heyday of the heroic epic. It arose on the basis of folk songs and tales about the exploits of fearless heroes who fought dragons, sorcerers, and villains. Epic works were not intended to be read, but to be performed aloud, often to the accompaniment of musical instruments (viola or harp). For this reason, most of them are written in verse form. The most famous epic works of that era include:
- "Elder Edda", a collection of Old Icelandic sagas, in which mythology and Christianity are intricately intertwined.
- "The Nibelungenlied" tells about the fate of the German knight Siegfried.
- Beowulf, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic about a brave dragon fighter.
Over time, not mythical, but real personalities became the heroes of epics, and the works themselves began to tell about events that took place in reality. Such historical-epic poems include the Spanish "Song of Side" and the French "Song of Roland". The latter tells about the campaign of Charlemagne in the Basque country and the death of Count Roland, who, together with his detachment, covered the retreat of the royal army through the Pyrenees.
Line mill
For the musical art of the XI-XII centuries, its division into secular and church music was of great importance. In this era, for all Western European countries, the organ becomes a recognized temple instrument, and the Latin language becomes a single form of liturgical singing. Christian music, whose creators were mainly French and Italian monks, played a huge role in creating the foundations of the professional musical culture of Europe.
The main milestone in the history of this art was an innovation made by Guido of Arezzo. This Italian monk, who taught boys to sing, developed the principles of musical notation, which are still used today. Before him, sounds were recorded with neumes, square notes. However, using them, it was not possible to visually depict the pitch of the sound. Guido of Arezzo placed the tunes on4-note linear staff, thus solving the problem.
The Romanesque style that dominated Europe also influenced the choreography. Bassdance - a medieval dance, performed to the singing of dancers or to the accompaniment of musical instruments. It looked more like a solemn procession than a dance. Bassdance, ponderous and majestic, like castles and temples, was a reflection of the Romanesque period in European art.
The chisel and stone
Better examples of the Romanesque architectural style represented the unity of architecture, sculpture and painting. Already from a distance, going to worship, believers saw the external sculptural decoration of the facade of the temple. Inside, they passed through the main portal - a richly decorated stone carved entrance, located on the western side of the building. Its massive bronze gates were often decorated with reliefs depicting biblical scenes.
Inside the temple, the believer walked to the altar past vaults, columns, capitals, walls, also decorated with stone carvings and frescoes. The images were based on plots from the Holy Scriptures, but the main figure has always been the figure of God Almighty, merciless to unrepentant sinners and triumphant over enemies. This is how the people of the Middle Ages represented the Creator. It is no coincidence that churches built in the Romanesque style were called the “Bible in stone.”
In the sculpture of that period, as in painting, the role of the human figure in the decorative and ornamental composition is strengthened. However, the monumental sculpture, inherited from Antiquity, was completely subordinated toarchitectural forms. Therefore, a huge role in the decoration of basilicas was assigned to stone sculpture, usually created against the background of reliefs. As a rule, they decorated not only the interior, but also the outer walls of basilicas. In friezes - decorative compositions, figures of squat proportions prevailed, and on pillars and columns - elongated ones.
Features of sculpture
Besides this, sculptural reliefs were located above the main portal. Most often it was an image of the Last Judgment. Probably the most famous is the scene that adorns the entrance of the Saint-Lazare Cathedral in Autun (Burgundy). This is a rare case when the name of the master who created the relief came down to us - Gislebert.
In the center of the image is the figure of Christ administering judgment. On the right hand of him stand the jubilant righteous, on the left - trembling sinners. The most remarkable thing in this relief is the variety of human feelings. The movements, postures and faces reflect fear or hope. The main thing for the master was to create not believable figures, but to depict the whole gamut of experienced feelings.
In each country, sculpture had its own national characteristics. For example, in Germany, unlike France, the facades and outer walls of temples were almost not decorated. German sculpture of the Romanesque style is strict and ascetic, severe and rather abstract. An example of this is the church of Laah Abbey of St. Mary.
The sculptural decoration of Romanesque churches showed not only love for the spiritual, but also for the extraordinary,fantastic. Here you can see stone ornaments of rare beauty and complexity: centaurs, winged dragons, monkeys playing chess, etc. Figurines of fairy-tale creatures, borrowed from the legends of the Germanic tribes, often adorned the facades and capitals of the columns of Romanesque basilicas.
French style
Romanesque style and Gothic, which replaced it in the XIII century, left a huge imprint on the development of European culture of the Middle Ages. If Romanesque was a combination of rigor and monumentality (no fantasies, only clear geometry and a prayerful mood), then Gothic was distinguished by lightness and sublimity.
It originated in the XII century. in the north of France, and then spread almost all over the continent: from Portugal to Lithuania. At that time it was called the "French style", and subsequently the new direction was called "Gothic". In many ways, the architecture of the Gothic cathedral retained the traditions of the Romanesque style. Almost all of its elements remained, but in a changed form: thin bunches of graceful columns appeared instead of thick pillars, semicircular arches stretched upwards, small windows became huge, filling the temple with light.
Afterword
The first own achievement of European peoples, different from ancient art, was, of course, the Romanesque style. Photos of medieval temples, sculptures, book miniatures serve as indisputable evidence that this period marked a significant cultural step forward.
