In modern psychology there is a whole section devoted to gender studies. The study of the differences between both sexes, as members of society, should contribute to a better understanding between men and women.
The subject of gender psychology is the peculiarities of the intellect and psyche inherent in the representatives of the same sex. Conventionally, scientists divide them into several main categories, each of which we will learn in more detail later.
Psychology of comparison
Considered one of the first lines of research on gender stereotypes. In the process of formation, this section was called by scientists in different ways. Among the past names, it is worth noting "sexual dimorphism", "dipsychism", "gender differences".
The essence of this area of psychology is a comparative analysis of men and women, boys and girls, boys and girls according to various criteria, including psychophysiological, neuropsychological and social characteristics of the psyche. The task of such a study, which involves the search not only for differences, but also for similarities, is to determine the genderoriginality.
The psychology of comparing men and women is the most developed section of psychology dedicated to the study of the mentality of both sexes, despite this, it remains not fully understood.
Psychological Portrait of a Woman
In the works of foreign scientists, this section is often intertwined with the previous one, but has a slightly different specificity. In the psychology of women, there is a subject - these are the nuances of the female psyche associated with the physiology, which are absent in the representatives of the stronger sex. Such a psychology studies the state of women during the menstrual cycle, defloration, gestation, childbirth, menopause.
The social institution of motherhood is often considered as a subject. Especially often, researchers are concerned about this issue in a situation where a woman is raising a child on her own, without the participation of a father. Researchers are no less interested in the specifics of female employment and unemployment, the choice of profession and type of activity (in particular, industries in which men are practically not involved, which does not allow for an adequate gender comparison). Much attention is paid to the deviant behavior of women in the female environment. In addition, the gender studies section includes the study of specific female pathologies, including gynecological and genetic ones.
Male psychology
Unlike the previous section of gender psychology, this section is just taking the first steps. The subject concepts here are featuresmale psyche, which are absent in the representatives of the opposite sex. A separate category in this direction is the study of the degree of influence of hormones on the ability of men to solve various problems and set global goals.
Gender in male psychology research has nothing to do with irrelevant comparisons. It is impossible to objectively compare even the most androgynous woman and the most feminine man. In addition, the subject of research in male psychology can be specific diseases that affect the psyche, while such a priori cannot be in women. Factors of early male mortality, suicide and mental disorders also fall under the close attention of scientists.
Socialization and psychology of gender relations
The subject of this area of research is quite wide, as it includes issues of the formation of gender roles, self-identification and relations both between the sexes and between members of the same sex. This section refers to contemporary gender studies. Of particular interest here is the communication of a man and a woman in an intimate way - friendly, sexual, marital. Deviant relationships between partners, often associated with violence, are also studied here.
Gender psychology of leaders
In the course of research on gender differences in this direction, problems are studied that affect not only gender relations, but also differences between representatives of bothgenders with the makings of leaders, as well as the way of their socialization.
In addition, no less interesting from the point of view of gender psychology is the principle of dominance and subordination, which requires deep consideration and analysis. Among the theoretical aspects, a huge role is given to the development of concepts, methods and techniques, conducting large-scale sociological research; among the applied ones - the implementation of the results obtained in the practical work of specialists (consultants, psychologists, leaders of training groups, managers, lawyers, teachers and educators).
To study each of these areas, several methods of gender research are used. To date, five scientific approaches have been applied in this area. All of them were adopted at the beginning of the last century.
Rough induction method
This approach involves the use in the course of the study of various opinions, commonplace and biased worldly statements about both sexes. Psychologists accumulate stories, stories that they hear from acquaintances, friends, relatives in an unbiased informal setting. At the same time, none of the researchers is able to guarantee the reliability of the results obtained, built on diverse responses and opinions. The thing is that most of the subjects have their own interpretation of gender differences in the psychological and personal aspects.
Experimental study method
This method, as a rule, is not widely used, it is used extremely rarely. Gender Psychology Research,conducted with its help, represent a kind of pedagogical and educational experiments, the task of which is to clarify the comparative effectiveness of technologies, techniques, and strategies used in educational and professional activities. The method includes a stating experiment, focused on identifying false gender stereotypes, and a formative experiment that does not allow distortion of the stereotypical perception of differences between the sexes.
Deduction method
Unlike the previous ones, this method involves the application of previously established patterns of gender psychology to subjects of different sexes. At the same time, there is always a danger of missing any specific nuances, since it is assumed that all objects of research are similar to each other and obey common patterns. Deduction has gained the greatest popularity among French scientists. The results of modern gender studies are also often distorted due to the fact that scientists apply the same methods to both female and male subjects.
Biography
This method allows you to analyze the personality of famous historical figures. The disadvantage of the biographical method of research, according to most scientists, is the impossibility of applying it to women, which is explained by the following:
- firstly, among the fairer sex there are not so many outstanding personalities, since it is more difficult for a woman to achieve fame and recognition than a man;
- second, male and female rolesin stories covered unevenly;
- Third, comparing famous and unknown women and famous and unfamous men, there are almost no similarities.
By the way, the last hypothesis was confirmed by researchers involved in the psychology of leadership.
Questioning
Questioning occupies a special place in the methodology of gender studies, because it takes into account the sexual characteristics of the subjects, especially their emotionality. However, this method is not always suitable for studying the problems of gender psychology. So, for example, when determining the degree of effectiveness of problem solving by representatives of different sexes, it is important to give the subjects such tasks that would be compiled in a language that is comfortable for them and would be of interest to both men and women. It is necessary to take into account even the most insignificant nuances at first glance, because even the gender of the experimenter can matter.
Meta-analysis is a method of foreign gender studies
Relevant for the psychology of gender differences is a meta-analysis. This research method has become a follower of the so-called literature review, which is practically not used in modern science. Meta-analysis appeared in the social field of research about 40 years ago and over this period has been subject to correction.
Meta-analysis is a way of secondary processing of data obtained as a result of studying a single problem. A meta-analysis selects a number of similar researchwork, which, as a rule, are performed on the basis of identical methods. Then the works of scientists are included in the database, taking into account the individual information of the subjects, such as age, gender of the experimenter, profession, social status, etc.
Required for meta-analysis is the indicator of gender differences. In some positions, superiority remains with men, in others - with women, and in the third, almost the same results are achieved. Upon completion of the gender study, the information received is brought to uniform indicators, which are calculated according to certain mathematical formulas. The results allow us to conclude what gender differences exist and how significant they are. In the course of gender studies in Russia, this method is practically not used due to the insufficient level of technical equipment.
How the psychology of gender difference evolved
The first work that can be attributed to this industry is a book by Moscow researcher L. P. Kochetkova, published in 1915. It can be called an introduction to gender studies. The title "Male Extinction in the World of Plants, Animals and Humans" fully conveys its content: the book provides data on the birth and death rates of children of that time. At the same time, every word and conclusion of the treatise is permeated with the spirit of hatred for everything male. In particular, Kochetkova urged women to give up childbearing in order to stop the existence of the male sex - a source of inequality, disagreement, strife and alienation between people.
It is impossible not to say that in historygender studies, similar ideas divorced from reality came from the representatives of the stronger sex. However, such thoughts among scientists only hindered the development of psychology, and the topic itself did not lead to anything other than the “war of the sexes”.
And only decades later, the first successful attempts to study the problems of gender stereotypes were made. The studies of E. A. Arkin and P. P. Blonsky counterbalance Freud’s ideas in the context of his ideas about the sexual attraction of a social group to its leader. Russian scientists believed that the influence of the leader is not absolute, on the contrary, it is the group or its individual members that have influence on the leader. According to the study, 23 personal qualities are of particular importance for the characteristics of a leader, among which:
- parental status;
- satisfaction with one's own appearance;
- gesture;
- facial expressions and speech;
- he alth, body structure, muscle strength;
- coordination of movements;
- nervous system;
- intellect level, resourcefulness;
- taking the initiative;
- technical prowess;
- degree of self-confidence;
- personal attractions, hobbies.
Equally interesting are Arkin's findings about gender differences in boy and girl leaders in childhood. The scientist noticed that the leaders in most children's groups are boys who win respect in the group with their initiative and technical dexterity. Whilehow girls extend their influence only to certain parts of the groups.
Gender studies in Russia stopped after the 30s of the last century. The lull in social psychology, which was declared unnecessary, lasted until the mid-1960s. But from that moment on, gender differences began to be explored in a wider range: from zoopsychology and psychophysiology to social psychology. N. A. Tikh, A. V. Yarmolenko, L. A. Golovey, and V. I. Sergeeva stood out among the authors of the studies. Sex differences in psychomotor, body reactivity and neuropsychic regulation are still considered popular topics for study today. Scientists continue to work in the field of communication between representatives of the sexes, interpersonal relations and production activities (V. N. Panferov, S. M. Mikheeva).
What is CSPGI
The Center for Social Policy and Gender Studies is a non-profit institution established to carry out social-psychological and educational-scientific developments, including the study of topical issues in gender psychology. The Moscow organization began its activity in 1996. Then the institution was called the "Center for Gender Studies", and carried out its activities with the support of a grant from the Open Society Institute, developing an academic network, publishing publications, developing and teaching courses on gender psychology. After the death of the director of the CSPGI Romanov, the organization ceased to exist.
Chugunova's research
The study of leadership and leadership of different sexes receives a lot of attention to this day.day. For example, E. S. Chugunova and a group of scientists under her leadership managed to reveal the personal characteristics of engineers and managers, establishing the main differences in personality structures among both sexes.
Men are characterized by high creative productivity, professional dominance, dominance and high self-esteem. Unlike women, men are more motivated, which is associated with their sense of responsibility and orientation towards self-sufficiency. In women, the personality structure is characterized by other factors. Thus, for the representatives of the weaker sex, satisfaction with the official position and corporate relationships with management and colleagues is characteristic. If men prioritize work and material we alth, for women, psychological comfort is paramount. By the way, women often make their choice of profession under the influence of the opinions of others.
Based on Chugunova's research, many other scientific papers have been written on the originality and characteristics of male and female personality portraits. These include the works of T. V. Bendas, who tried to establish differences between the leaders of student groups at all levels of organization. Male leaders are distinguished by high emotional stability and the level of claims in the field of relationships with low expressiveness and emotionality. In women's gender studies, the subject of study was the leadership personality of girls involved in student self-government. Women differ from men in rigiditycommunication and conformity with low self-control, especially in highly organized groups. In low-organized groups, on the contrary, women feel much more confident and calm, they are more balanced emotionally.
Problems of the psychology of men and women
The textbook "Introduction to Gender Studies" by I. A. Zherebkina briefly reflects the essence of the problems associated with several areas of relations between the sexes. This book is recommended for reading by future sociologists and psychologists. Its content draws attention to the conditions for the implementation of innate programs that change under environmental influences.
In the same place, many are trying to find for themselves the answer to the main question: to be or not to be a leader? Each of us is capable of giving different answers to it. Analyzing the nature of the differences between boys and girls, it is worth considering not only the factors of heredity and genetics, but also the conditions of socialization in which the child was brought up from an early age. The study touches upon the topics of personal qualities related to the concepts of "femininity" and "masculinity". So, traditionally female characteristics are considered to be a tendency to express emotions, the desire to share feelings and experiences with others. Masculinity, on the other hand, looks different in general terms. First of all, it is an unwillingness to show weakness, to discuss one's problems with anyone, restraining emotions, the desire to concentrate on something, not to be distracted.
Among the problems of gender studies, the study of the psychology of female managers occupies a significant place. Over the past decades theythe number increased several times, which could not but attract the attention of researchers. Women's gender stereotypes are manifested very clearly in any social sphere, and therefore the study of issues related to the attitudes and views of representatives of different countries, ethnic groups, cultures, ultimately contributes to the solution of a number of socio-psychological problems.
Leadership in terms of psychology
The development of gender studies, the object of which is the leadership of men and women, continues to this day. In general, both sexes who have taken on leadership roles and functions in the same or similar managerial positions may not differ from each other in professional skills. At the same time, in some situations, gender becomes the most significant and changeable factor that causes women leaders to lose to men with their greater power, influence and resources. However, this approach does not allow an objective assessment of the role of the stereotypical perception of managers of different sexes.
Argued differences in the behavior of leaders based on gender are described in the theory of the researcher Alice Eagley. The psychologist is sure that the gender role predetermines a person's behavior in accordance with the gender stereotypes laid down in the process of education. But on the other hand, the requirements are made specifically to the person who has taken on the role of leader. At the same time, stereotypes attribute leadership to true masculine qualities, which means that leading women experience an internal conflict between gender and leadership.
In the course of the analysis of gender studies devoted to the study of leadership issues, an interesting feature was revealed: many members of social groups had negative prejudices against women leaders, which provoked an underestimation of self-esteem in the latter, uncertainty in their own actions and, as a result, a deterioration in productivity labor. Highly qualified female specialists are able to cope with these difficulties, but in this sense, men have an advantage, since they do not have to face such obstacles - they simply do not exist for men. Alice Eagley believes that only the resolution of the internal conflict of roles in women leaders will give ground for the growth of achievements, which is impossible without:
- real success;
- the right choice of type of activity, where leadership functions will not run counter to the natural female femininity;
- demonstrating the opposite of androgynous leadership style, aimed at building trusting relationships with subordinates.
Conclusion
Gender studies in science have acquired their significance relatively recently. Empirical development data is obtained by scientists in the course of work with children's groups, business companies, married couples. The subject of studying gender differences is often the relationship between a man and a woman in a conflict or deviant situation. In such groups, there is inevitably a tendency towards gender confrontation.
It is likely that the gender dimension will find its way into otherdirections of the theory of leadership, but in this area this topic has a significant scientific potential: most of the developments and studies of the characteristics of sex can become a fundamental basis for obtaining new results and confirming a number of theories. The only thing not to do is to conduct research from an ideological position, which, unfortunately, is often found among scientific publications.
