The emergence of science in our modern understanding is a relatively new process that requires constant study. In the Middle Ages, such a concept did not exist, since social conditions did not contribute to the development of science in any way. The desire to give all existing objects and phenomena a rational explanation arose in the 16th-17th centuries, when the ways of knowing the world were divided into philosophy and science. And this was only the beginning - with the passage of time and a change in people's perception, non-classical science was partially replaced by non-classical science, and then post-non-classical science arose.
These teachings partially changed the concepts of classical science and limited its scope. With the advent of non-classical science, many discoveries significant for the world occurred, and new experimental data were introduced. The study of the nature of phenomena has moved to a new level.
Definition of non-classical science
The non-classical stage in the development of science began at the end of the 19th - the middle of the 20th century. He becamelogical continuation of the classical trend, which during this period was undergoing a crisis of rational thinking. It was the third scientific revolution, striking in its globality. Non-classical science offered to understand objects not as something stable, but to pass them through a kind of cut from various theories, methods of perception and principles of research.
An idea arose that crossed out the entire process of natural science: to perceive the nature of an object and phenomena not as something taken for granted, as it was before. Scientists suggested considering them abstractly and accepting the truth of explanations that differ from each other, because in each of them there may be a grain of objective knowledge. Now the subject of science was studied not in its unchanged form, but in specific conditions of existence. Research on the same subject took place in different ways, so the end results could differ.
Principles of non-classical science
The principles of non-classical science were adopted, which were as follows:
- Rejection of the excessive objectivity of classical science, which offered to perceive the subject as something unchanging, independent of the means of its cognition.
- Understanding the relationship between the properties of the object of study and the peculiarity of the actions carried out by the subject.
- The perception of these connections as the basis for determining the objectivity of the description of the properties of the object and the world as a whole.
- Acceptance in research of the totality of the principles of relativity, discreteness, quantization, complementarity and probability.
Research as a whole has moved to a new multifactorial concept: the rejection of isolation of the subject of research in order to "purity of experiment" in favor of conducting a comprehensive review in dynamic conditions.
Features of the implementation of science
The formation of non-classical science has completely changed the natural order of perception of the real world:
- In most teachings, including natural science, non-classical science philosophy began to play a significant role.
- The study of the nature of the subject is given more time, the researcher applies different methods and traces the interaction of the object in different conditions. The object and subject of research have become more connected.
- The interconnection and unity of the nature of all things has strengthened.
- A certain pattern has formed, based on the causality of phenomena, and not just on the mechanical perception of the world.
- Dissonance is perceived as the main characteristic of objects in nature (for example, disagreements between the quantum and wave structures of simple particles).
- A special role is given to the relationship between static and dynamic research.
- The metaphysical way of thinking has been replaced by a dialectical, more universal one.
After the introduction of the concept of non-classical science, a lot of significant discoveries took place in the world, dating back to the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. They did not fit into the established provisions of classical science, so they completely changed the perception of the world of people. Let's get acquainted with the main theories of this timenext.
Darwin's theory of evolution
One of the results of the adoption of non-classical science was the great work of Charles Darwin, for which he collected materials and research from 1809 to 1882. Now almost all theoretical biology is based on this doctrine. He systematized his observations and found out that the main factors in the process of evolution are heredity and natural selection. Darwin determined that the change in the characteristics of a species in the process of evolution depends on certain and uncertain factors. Certain ones are formed under the influence of the environment, that is, with the same influence of natural conditions on most individuals, their features change (the thickness of the skin or coat, pigmentation, and others). These factors are adaptive in nature and are not passed on to the next generations.
Uncertain changes also occur under the influence of environmental factors, but occur by chance with some individuals. Most often they are inherited. If the change was beneficial to the species, it is fixed through the process of natural selection and passed on to the next generations. Charles Darwin showed that evolution had to be studied using a variety of principles and ideas, through investigations and observations of various natures. His discovery de alt a significant blow to the one-sided religious ideas about the universe of that time.
Einstein's theory of relativity
In the next significant discovery, the methodologynon-classical science played a major role. We are talking about the work of Albert Einstein, who in 1905 published the theory of the relativity of bodies. Its essence was reduced to the study of the motion of bodies moving relative to each other at a constant speed. He explained that in this case it is wrong to perceive a separate body as a frame of reference - it is necessary to consider objects relative to each other and take into account the speed and trajectory of both objects.
There are 2 main principles in Einstein's theory:
- The principle of relativity. It says: in all generally accepted frames of reference, moving relative to each other with the same speed and the same direction, the same rules will apply.
- The principle of the speed of light. According to it, the speed of light is the highest, it is the same for all objects and phenomena and does not depend on the speed of their movement. The speed of light remains the same.
Fame Albert Einstein brought a passion for experimental sciences and rejection of theoretical knowledge. He made an invaluable contribution to the development of non-classical science.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
In 1926, Heisenberg developed his own quantum theory, changing the relationship of the macrocosm to the familiar material world. The general meaning of his work was that characteristics that the human eye cannot visually observe (for example, the movement and trajectory of atomic particles) should not be included in mathematical calculations. First of all, becausethat the electron moves both as a particle and as a wave. At the molecular level, any interaction between an object and a subject causes changes in the movement of atomic particles that cannot be traced.
The scientist undertook to transfer the classical point of view about the motion of particles into the system of physical calculations. He believed that only quantities directly related to the stationary state of the object, transitions between states and visible radiation should be used in calculations. Taking the principle of correspondence as a basis, he compiled a matrix table of numbers, where each value was assigned its own number. Each element in the table has a stationary or non-stationary state (in the process of transition from one state to another). Calculations, if necessary, should be made based on the number of the element and its condition. Non-classical science and its features greatly simplified the calculation system, which Heisenberg confirmed.
The Big Bang Hypothesis
The question of how the Universe appeared, what was before its occurrence and what will happen after, has always worried and worries now not only scientists, but also ordinary people. The non-classical stage in the development of science opened one of the versions of the emergence of civilization. This is the famous Big Bang theory. Of course, this is one of the hypotheses of the origin of the world, but most scientists are convinced of its existence as the only true version of the origin of life.
The essence of the hypothesis is as follows: the entire universe and all its contents arose simultaneously as a result of an explosion about 13 billion years ago. Until that time, nothing existed - only an abstract compact ball of matter with infinite temperature and density. At some point, this ball began to expand rapidly, a gap occurred, and the Universe that we know and actively study appeared. This hypothesis also describes the possible causes of the expansion of the Universe and explains in detail all the phases that followed the Big Bang: the initial expansion, cooling, the appearance of clouds of ancient elements that initiated the formation of stars and galaxies. All the matter that exists in the real world was created by a giant explosion.
Rene Thomas' catastrophe theory
In 1960, the French mathematician René Thom expressed his theory of catastrophes. The scientist began to translate into mathematical language phenomena in which a continuous impact on matter or an object creates an abrupt result. His theory makes it possible to understand the origin of change and jumps in systems, despite its mathematical nature.
The meaning of the theory is as follows: any system has its own stable state of rest, in which it occupies a stable position or a certain range of them. When a stable system is exposed to an external influence, its initial forces will be directed towards preventing this impact. Then she will try to restore her original position. If the pressure on the system was so strong that it could not return to a steady state, a catastrophic change would occur. As a result, the system will take a new stable state, different from the original one.
Thus, practice has proved that there are not only non-classical technical sciences, but also mathematical ones. They help in understanding the world no less than other teachings.
Post-non-classical science
The emergence of post-non-classical science was due to a big leap in the development of means of obtaining knowledge and their subsequent processing and storage. This happened in the 70s of the XX century, when the first computers appeared, and all the accumulated knowledge had to be converted into electronic form. The active development of complex and interdisciplinary research programs began, science gradually merged with industry.
This period in science indicated that it is impossible to ignore the role of man in the subject or phenomenon under study. The main stage in the advancement of science was the understanding of the world as an integral system. There was an orientation to the person not only in the choice of research methods, but also in general social and philosophical perception. In post-non-classical studies, complex systems capable of developing independently, and natural complexes headed by a person became objects.
The understanding of integrity was adopted as the basis, where the entire universe, the biosphere, man and society as a whole represent a single system. Man is within this integral unit. He is the investigating part of it. In such circumstances, the natural and social sciences have become much closer, their principles are capturing the humanities. Non-classical andpost-non-classical science made a breakthrough in the principles of understanding the world in general and society in particular, made a real revolution in the minds of people and methods of research.
Modern science
At the end of the 20th century there was a new breakthrough in development and modern non-classical science began its development. Artificial neural connections are being developed, which have become the basis for the formation of new smart computers. Machines could now solve simple problems and develop independently, moving on to solving more complex tasks. The human factor is also included in the systematization of databases, which helps to determine the effectiveness and identify the presence of expert systems.
Non-classical and post-non-classical science in its modern generalized form has the following characteristics:
- Active dissemination of ideas about commonality and integrity, about the possibility of independent development of an object and phenomenon of any nature. The concept of the world as a whole developing system, which at the same time tends to be unstable and chaotic, is being strengthened.
- Reinforcing and spreading the idea that changes in parts within a system are interconnected and conditioned by each other. Summarizing all the processes existing in the world, this idea marked the beginning of the understanding and research of global evolution.
- The application of the concept of time in all sciences, the researcher's appeal to the history of the phenomenon. Spreading the theory of development.
- Changes in the choice of the nature of research, the perception of an integrated approach in the study as the most correct.
- Merge of the objective world and the worldhuman being, eliminating the distinction between object and subject. The person is inside the system under study, not outside.
- Knowing that the result of any method used by non-classical science will be limited and incomplete if only one approach is used in the study.
- Dissemination of philosophy as a science in all teachings. Understanding that philosophy is the unity of the theoretical and practical principles of the Universe, and without its realization, the perception of modern natural science is impossible.
- The introduction of mathematical calculations into scientific theories, their strengthening and the growth of abstractness of perception. An increase in the importance of computational mathematics, since most of the results of the study are required to be presented in a numerical form. A large number of abstract theories has led to the fact that science has become a kind of modern activity.
In modern research, the characteristics of non-classical science indicate a gradual weakening of the rigid framework that previously limited the information content of scientific discussions. Preference in reasoning is given to a non-rational approach and the involvement of logical thinking in experiments. At the same time, rational conclusions are still significant, but are perceived abstractly and are subject to repeated discussion and rethinking.
