The history of Ancient Egypt lasted for several millennia. During this time, the state managed to disintegrate several times, unite and change its cultural foundations. That is why ancient Egyptian history has a well-established periodization that helps to get a general idea of the chronology of those ancient events.
Prehistory
The civilization that arose on the banks of the Nile is considered perhaps the most ancient on Earth. However, even before its formation, people lived in northeast Africa. These were Upper Paleolithic cultures that appeared 40,000 years ago. The generally accepted periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt begins from this point. The earliest archaeological cultures are Aterian and Hormusan. Related artefacts found are rare and fragmentary.
Monuments of the Khalfan culture belong to the Mesolithic era. Its traces have been preserved not only in Egypt, but also in Nubia. In the Neolithic, carriers of the Fayum culture A appeared, who arrived in Africa from the Middle East. The remains of their settlements have survived, including the settlements of El-Omari and Merimde.
Many tribes were attracted to Ancient Egypt. Periodization shows how often peoples changed here in prehistoric times. Egypt was a transit region - the border between Asia and Africa. In the late Neolithic, the Tasian, Badarian and Gerzean archaeological cultures were formed there. The last of them was replaced by the Zero Dynasty.
Predynastic Egypt
About five thousand years BC, Predynastic Ancient Egypt was formed. The periodization of history shows that it was then that the decomposition of obsolete tribal relations began. A society began to emerge in which there were already separate classes. Slave-owning relations appeared, followed by slave-owning states.
No unified Egypt has yet existed. Consolidation took a significant amount of time. It was facilitated by the development of agriculture and the construction of settlements with fortified walls. The settlement of the inhabitants of Egypt was strengthened. Metal products appeared: pins, needles, gold jewelry.
Presumably in 3200 BC, the Zero Dynasty arose. This term is used by specialists to designate a number of Egyptian rulers who ruled in Lower and Upper Egypt. They were not relatives, but were only contemporaries. It was during the period of the Zero Dynasty that the process of unifying the country began.
Early Kingdom
With the emergence of the Early Kingdom, the first pharaoh Menes, who belonged to the 1st dynasty, began to rule. He finally united the Lower and Upper kingdoms into a single Egypt. The capital of this ancient state was Memphis. At the same time, the construction of adobe tombs for the rulers who found themselvesthe forerunners of the famous pyramids.
The first pharaohs fought with the Bedouins and organized campaigns in neighboring Nubia. The periodization and chronology of the history of Ancient Egypt says that the most ancient scientific successes of the Egyptians (in the fields of astronomy and geometry) belong to the era of the Early Kingdom. In the 28th century BC, maritime trade with the Levantine cities on the Mediterranean was born.
The I and II dynasties belong to the Early Kingdom. In their era, writing developed and the first annals appeared. Polytheism developed - belief in many gods who personified the forces of nature, life, death, etc. The state controlled irrigation work on the banks of the Nile.
Old Kingdom
Scientists attribute the boundary between the Early and Old Kingdoms to the XXVII century BC. e. Pharaoh Sanakht became the founder of the new state. The ancient kingdom includes the III-VI dynasties. During this period, an unprecedented economic, cultural and military-political growth of the Egyptian civilization took place.
There were pyramids that replaced mastabas. Craftsmen, peasants and slaves were driven to the construction of these monumental architectural monuments. The state was rigidly centralized and, having a power resource, mobilized the population at its own discretion. Ancient Egypt, the periodization of which was compiled by modern archaeologists and historians, under Pharaoh Pepi I conquered Southern Syria. In the XXIV century BC. e. priestly simplified writing separated from the usual hieroglyphic. According to the chronicles, one of the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, Pepi II, ruled for 94 years, which is a kind of historical record.
Fragmentation
After the fall of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, an era of fragmentation began. It includes the 7th-10th dynasties. At this time, the country plunged into anarchy. In fact, the pharaohs did not have any power and were only nominal figures. The periodization of the history of the state in Ancient Egypt is such that in the era of fragmentation, nomarchs used real influence, each of which ruled a specific city or province.
The collapse of the state led to the destruction of a single system of irrigation canals, which led to devastation and growing famine. Numerous gangs plundered tombs and temples. Ancient Egypt, whose periodization, social and political structure continues to be studied by specialists from different countries, at that time suffered greatly from the raids of neighboring nomads.
Middle Kingdom
The period of fragmentation ended when two forces arose capable of uniting Egypt again. The kingdoms of Heracleopolis and Thebes clashed in the struggle for supremacy. The conflict between them lasted for several decades. Finally, Thebes won, and the ruler of this city, Mentuhotep II, founded the XI dynasty.
The era that began in the 21st century BC was called the Middle Kingdom. It includes not only the XI, but also the XII dynasty. At that time, the state was characterized by weak centralization for the ancient despotisms, which, however, did not interfereEgyptian civilization to subjugate the Middle East. From the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, silver, copper, gold and other valuable goods were supplied to the banks of the Nile. The Middle Kingdom was the richest state of its era. The periodization of the culture of Ancient Egypt says that it was during this period that the national ancient Egyptian literature flourished (the most famous story is considered to be “The Tale of Sinuhe”).
Decay
The period of new political fragmentation began in 1782 BC. e., and ended in 1570 BC. e. The country was divided into independent provinces. At the same time, foreigners, the Hyksos, invaded it. The periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt is the alternation of the eras of prosperity and decline of the country. During the new decline, the state was in deep crisis. The rulers controlled only the Nile Delta and could not cope with the provinces that wanted independence.
In the end, the title of pharaoh was taken over by the leaders of the Hyksos. Their reign includes the XV and XVI dynasties. Thebes was the main center of resistance to foreigners. Their rulers today are ranked as the XVII dynasty. It was they who expelled the Hyksos and rallied the country around Thebes. The then periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt, in short, is a lot of disparate segments, the details of which often remain unknown.
New Kingdom
The new kingdom existed in the XVI-XI centuries BC. This is the "classic" period. It is about him that most of the information has been preserved. In this era, the rules, including the young manTutankhamen, the discovery of whose tomb was the greatest archaeological event of the 20th century.
The new kingdom left behind another significant name. Pharaoh Akhenaten tried to reform the Egyptian religion. He abandoned the former pantheon and forced the country to pray to a single god. Akhenaten's efforts were in vain. Polytheism was soon revived.
In the New Kingdom (dynasties from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth) lived a fifth of the human population of the planet. The periodization of the art of Ancient Egypt refers to this era the largest number of monuments that have survived to this day. The new kingdom fell after the priestly class seized power in the south of the country. The collapse was preceded by the “catastrophe of the Bronze Age”, when the “peoples of the sea” invaded Egypt in the 12th century BC, causing great damage to the country.
Split
The last period of Egyptian fragmentation continued in the XI-VI centuries BC. During this time, the dynasties changed from the Twenty-first to the Twenty-sixth. Due to civil strife, Egypt ceased to claim leadership in the Eastern Mediterranean. The state lost its last possessions in the Middle East and in Phoenicia. Libyans continued to settle in Lower Egypt. The leaders of these foreign tribes became the rulers of the nomes, became related to the Egyptian nobility.
At the peak of fragmentation, the country was divided into five weak kingdoms. The periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt consists of many periods, but it was in that era that the largest number of dynasties andinternal wars. The fragmented country regularly became the target of Ethiopian aggression in the south and Assyria in the north.
Late Kingdom
Historians unite dynasties XXVII to XXX in the Late Period of Ancient Egypt. Its chronological framework: 525-332 BC. The beginning of the Late Kingdom is considered to be the conquest of the Nile Valley by Persia. Northeast Africa was considered the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Memphis again became the administrative center of the country.
When the war broke out between Persia and Greece, the Hellenes invaded Egypt, hoping for an anti-Persian uprising of the local population, but the rebellion never happened. The last period of independence of the country dates back to the 4th century BC. The pharaohs tried to defend their own sovereignty, taking advantage of the urgent problems of the Persians. Nevertheless, Artaxersk III again conquered Egypt. The second Persian dominion lasted only twenty years.
Alexander the Great conquers Egypt
In the 4th century BC, Ancient Egypt, the chronology and periodization of whose history is full of sharp turns, became part of the Macedonian state. If before that the people from the banks of the Nile developed as an Eastern civilization, now they have become part of a single Hellenized space.
After conquering Persia, Alexander the Great began to plant ancient Greek culture in the Middle East. In 332 BC, it was the turn of Egypt, which was part of the defeated power of the Achaemenids. Alexander conquered an African country and proclaimed himself pharaoh. ATin the Nile Delta, he built a new port, which became one of the greatest cities of antiquity. Alexandria is famous for its library and lighthouse (one of the 7 wonders of the world). The same city became the burial place of the famous military leader.
Ptolemaic period
The Ptolemaic period is the last chapter in the history of Ancient Egypt. It got its name in honor of the dynasty that established its power over the country after the premature death of Alexander the Great. His associates (diadochi) divided the power of the great commander. One of them, Ptolemy, became the ruler of Egypt.
Although the country remained independent for another three centuries, it was no longer an independent civilization. As mentioned above, Egypt was strongly influenced by the Hellenistic culture. Everything was mixed up - from languages to religion. Alexandria became the capital from which Ancient Egypt was ruled. The periodization of the history of this country says that during the heyday of the Ptolemies, their state owned not only the Nile Valley, but also Palestine, Cyprus, part of Syria and Asia Minor.
Meanwhile, a new great empire was growing on the territory of modern Italy. Having conquered the Western Mediterranean, the Roman Republic turned its gaze to the east. Consul Octavian August declared war on Egypt, where Cleopatra ruled. The country was conquered in 30 BC. Then the Roman Republic became an empire. Egypt was proclaimed one of its provinces and finally lost its independence.
