Prerequisites for the peculiar development of the northwestern territories of ancient Russia were formed in the process of the formation of statehood among the Slavic tribes of the Ilmen region.
In the Dnieper lands, power was concentrated in the hands of representatives of the military nobility. In Priilmenye there were no necessary conditions for its rise. The tribal nobility occupied a priority position in these territories.
Beginning of the formation of the Novgorod-Pskov Republic
After the emergence of the Old Russian state, the center of which was Kyiv, the management of lands, including the Novgorod territories, was carried out by the Kyiv prince. However, by the twelfth century the situation began to change.
Novgorod is considered one of the oldest centers of the Russian state. The principality occupied vast lands. However, they were not well suited for agriculture. Over time, Novgorod land began to turn into a center of trade with Western European states. Huge we alth was concentrated in the hands of the local nobility, which strengthened it in the struggle for independence from Kyiv.
It should be said that Novgorod for quite a long time tried to get rid of the influence of the Kyiv princes. According to sources, already Yaroslav the Wise made attempts to stop paying tribute to Kyiv. In the XII century. the Novgorod Republic emerges. And in the XIV century. The Pskov feudal republic gained independence. Prior to that, its lands were part of the Novgorod principality. Pskov itself was a suburb of Novgorod and was dependent on the latter. The independence of the Pskov Republic was recognized by the prince in exchange for help in the war with the Swedes.
The Novgorod Republic existed for more than 300 years. Internal contradictions and the aggravation of class confrontation led to a weakening. In 1478, the Novgorod Republic officially ceased to exist, and its territory was included in the Muscovite state. Pskov was annexed in 1510.
Pskov feudal republic
Despite the fact that the territory separated itself from the Novgorod Republic, it did not become its exact copy. The specifics of the location, geographical conditions significantly influenced the political and social system of the Pskov Republic.
The strengthening of the princely power was due to the proximity of rather aggressive neighbors. The absence of boyar land ownership was due to the scarcity of land.
The social system in the Novgorod and Pskov republics had some common features. So, in the principalities there were spiritual and secular feudal lords. The first belonged to the monasteries and their abbots, the bishop andarchbishop.
A characteristic feature of the social system in the Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics was that the church tried with all its might to become the patroness of trade. Vast territories made it possible to receive significant incomes, which were used in trade. The Church was the custodian of scales and standards, and sealed contracts. Broad powers made her an influential force.
The secular feudal lords included living (we althy) people, boyars. In the Pskov Republic, as well as in the Novgorod Republic, there was no princely domain; the land was owned by the city community.
Boyars
They were descendants of tribal nobility. Boyars in the Pskov Republic were considered the most influential group of feudal lords. Their power was based on we alth. At first they used the revenues received from public Novgorod lands. Novgorod acted as a collective feudal lord. But by the 14th century the formation of individual landownership of the boyars began. This was due, among other things, to the desire of the Novgorod boyars to protect their economic interests. They actively participated in the trade turnover, were engaged in usury.
Novgorod boyars very zealously defended their rights to elected positions (headman of Konchansk, posadnik). Living people, who in some cases had greater we alth, could not count on the highest posts.
Due to the fact that large land ownership in the Pskov Republic was not widespread, the economic superiority of the boyars was not so strong,as, for example, in Novgorod. Accordingly, the importance of the prince and the role of the veche in Pskov were stronger.
Life and people
There are mentions of them in the Judgment Charter of Novgorod. Zhiti people also owned the lands on which the peasants lived. However, they, like the boyars, remained citizens. Live actively and people participated in trade. The key sign of their status, however, was land ownership.
After the fall of the Novgorod Republic, people signed up for service with a local salary, and not urban settlements, like merchants. Despite the fact that they were feudal lords, their rights, in comparison with the boyars, were significantly limited. As mentioned above, living people could not be elected to the highest government positions. Until the XIV century. a thousandth was elected from among them, but later this position was usurped by the boyars.
Merchant
Merchants united in societies, corporations. Their centers were usually churches. Corporations had their own charters. One of them was included in the Manuscript of Prince Vsevolod in the 13th century. It spoke of a corporation formed around the Church of John the Baptist in Novgorod. It united quite we althy merchants. The contribution was 5 hryvnias of silver (about 10 kg of silver). The charter determined the organization's governance.
Since the merchants united around the church, elders were elected, and three at once: one was from the living and the "blacks", two were from the merchants.
In the Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics it is difficult to separatefeudal lords and townspeople, merchants and votchinniki. However, the merchants in these lands had a significant weight. Basically, it was engaged in domestic and foreign trade. But, like any other city dweller, a merchant could also own land.
Ladles
They were called people who worked from half the harvest. Quite a lot of attention is paid to the ladles of the judicial letter of the Pskov Republic.
Ladles were divided into isorniks and kochetniks. Gardeners and plowmen were among the former, fishermen were among the latter. Their place of residence united them - they did not live on their own lands, but "in the village of the sovereign."
In the laws in force at that time, the procedure for leaving the izornik from the master was determined. It was possible to leave in late autumn, once a year, if all debts were paid. The sovereign had no right to expel an izornik at another time.
Kholopy
As historical sources indicate, they were in Pskov and Novgorod. According to historical documents, runaway serfs had to be returned to their owners.
The judgment letter of Novgorod refers to the responsibility of the master for the commission of a crime by his serf. In such cases, the master had to pay a fine. A monetary pen alty was also imposed if the crime took place before entering servitude.
State system
After the recognition of independence from the princely power, the territory began to be called Lord Veliky Novgorod and Lord Pskov.
The state system of the Pskov Republic was significantly different fromcontrol system established in other territories of Russia.
The veche was considered the main authority. It was a meeting of representatives of urban communities. Peasants could not participate in the veche. Representatives of other cities were deprived of the decisive vote, although they were often present at meetings in Pskov and Novgorod.
The description of the composition of the veche and the list of issues that were resolved are presented differently in different sources. According to the traditional view, only men could participate in the meetings. They converged at the meeting at the ringing of the bell.
In Novgorod, the meeting was organized on Sofiyskaya Square or Yaroslavsky Courtyard, in Pskov - on the square near the Trinity Cathedral.
Justice
Veche actively participated in resolving disputes. However, over time, his influence on the justice system has decreased significantly.
As they say in the annals, the veche participated in cases of especially dangerous crimes. Sometimes there were interrogations.
Princes neither in Pskov nor in Novgorod had the right to judge alone. This was specifically stipulated in the contracts with them. The princes judged together with the posadniks, representatives of their people and boyars.
Legal system
It can be judged mainly by judicial letters, treaties with other states. It is worth saying that a number of the most important documents have not been completely preserved to this day. For example, only an excerpt remained from the Novgorod charter, including 42 articles. In the Pskov charter,fully preserved, many inaccuracies are found. The question of the dating of these historical monuments remains controversial. Traditionally, they are attributed to the 15th century.
In Pskov and Novgorod, other regulations were also used. First of all, the Russian Truth, the Pilot Book, the Righteous Measure acted in the republics. Russkaya Pravda is a collection of criminal and procedural laws. The Pskov charter contained mainly the norms of civil law, which was due to the formation of mainly commodity-money relations.
Roman law was actively used in Western Europe. In Russia, on the contrary, it was unknown. Therefore, their own specific legal institutions were developed, based on the vital needs of the population.
In civil law, the norms of property law were fixed. The key provisions concerned property. Among the ways to acquire it, the Pskov charter indicates the prescription of ownership. It could be applied to fishing areas of reservoirs and arable land. However, at the same time, certain conditions are fixed in the law, without observance of which the right of ownership cannot be acquired by prescription.
Inheritance and contracts were the key way to legally acquire objects.
Due to the fact that the commodity-money turnover developed very actively, much attention was paid to the law of obligations in the laws.
