How many different theories a modern person can see and hear! Moreover, they can be of very different directions. And this is not surprising, because there are different types of theories. This is due to the fact that different approaches are used to create them, and they themselves are aimed at various aspects of the activity of human society. So, there is a political theory, mathematical, economic, social. But let's take a closer look at all this.
General information
In the methodology of science, the word "theory" can be understood in two main senses: narrow and broad. The first of them means the highest form of organization of knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential connections and patterns in a certain area of reality. In this case, the scientific theory is characterized by the presence of systemic harmony, logical dependence between elements, the deducibility of its content from a certain set of concepts and statements (but this should be done according to certain logical and methodological rules). This is what organizes the basic theory. And what is meant by it in the broad sense of the word?
The theory of science in this case is a complex of ideas, ideas and views that are aimed atinterpret a certain phenomenon (or a group of similar incidents). Don't find anything surprising? If you think about it, in this case, almost everyone has their own theories. In fairness, it should be said that for the most part they belong to the sphere of everyday psychology. Thanks to them, a person streamlines his idea of justice, goodness, love, the meaning of life, gender relations, posthumous existence, and the like.
Why do we need a theory?
They act as a kind of methodological "cells" of scientific knowledge. The modern theory contains the existing knowledge, as well as the procedures by which it was obtained and substantiated. That is, it has the main "building" material - knowledge. They are interconnected by judgments. Already from them, according to the rules of logic, they make conclusions.
No matter what types of theories are considered, they should always be based on one or even several ideas (hypotheses) that offer solutions to a particular problem (or even their whole complex). That is, in order to be called a full-fledged science, it is enough to have only one well-developed theory. An example is geometry.
Is it easy to comprehend the theory?
To begin with, let's deal with concepts, conclusions, problems and hypotheses. They can often fit in one sentence. In theory, this is practically impossible. So, in order to state and substantiate it, entire works are often even written. Suffice it to give as an example the theory of universal gravitation, which was formulated by Newton. To substantiate it, he wrote a voluminous work in 1987, which is called "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy". It took him over 20 years to write. But this does not mean that the underlying theories are so complex that the average citizen cannot understand them.
First of all, it should be noted that the theory can be presented in a somewhat schematized (and, accordingly, compressed) version. This approach stipulates that everything secondary, of little significance will be removed, and also substantiating arguments and supporting facts are often taken out of the brackets. In addition, as mentioned above, it is inherent in each person to build their own theories, which are a generalization of their own experience and its analysis. Therefore, if you want to comprehend science, you will have to complicate the tasks that are often performed.
Types of theories
They are divided on the basis of their structure, which in turn is based on the methods of constructing theoretical knowledge. There are such types of theories:
- Axiomatic.
- Inductive.
- Hypothetical-deductive.
Each of them uses its own base, which is presented in the form of three different approaches.
Axiomatic theories
Such theories have been established in science since antiquity. They are the personification of the rigor and accuracy of scientific knowledge. The most famous representatives of this species aremathematical theories. An example is formatted arithmetic. In addition to it, considerable attention was also paid to formal logic and some branches of physics (thermodynamics, electrodynamics and mechanics). The classic example in this case is the geometry of Euclid. She was often approached not only for knowledge, but also as an example of scientific rigor. What is important within this species?
Here, three components are of greatest interest: postulates (axioms), derived meaning (theorems) and proofs (rules, conclusions). Since then, the mechanism for searching and designing a solution has changed significantly. The 20th century was especially fruitful in this regard. Then both new approaches and a fundamental level of knowledge were developed (probability theory can be given as an example). They continue to be developed and created now, but so far there is nothing that could radically turn our lives around.
Inductive theories
It is believed that in their pure form they are absent, since they do not provide apodictic and logically based knowledge. Therefore, many say that they should be understood as inductive methods. They are characteristic in the first place for natural science. This state of affairs has developed due to the fact that it is here that one can start with experiments and facts, and end with theoretical generalizations.
Although it must be admitted that several centuries ago inductive theorieswere very popular. But because of the amount of spending on scientific delights, they faded into the background. After all, think how the theory of probability would be formulated if we approached it in a practical way! Inductive inference usually begins with the analysis and comparison of the data obtained during the experiment or observation. If they find something similar or common, then they are generalized as a universal proposition.
Hypothetical-deductive theories
They are specific to the natural sciences. The creator of this species is considered to be Galileo Galilei. In addition, he also laid the foundations for experimental natural science. Subsequently, they found application among a large number of physicists, which contributed to the consolidation of the existing fame. Their essence lies in the fact that the researcher puts forward bold assumptions, the truth of which is uncertain. Then consequences are deduced from the hypotheses using the deductive method. This process continues until such a statement is obtained so that it can be compared with experience. If empirical testing confirms its adequacy, then it is concluded that the original hypotheses were correct.
What components should a scientific theory have?
There are many classifications. In order not to get confused, let's take as a basis the one proposed by Shvyryov. According to it, the following components are mandatory:
- Initial empirical basis. This includes facts recorded up to this point and knowledge that was obtained as a result of experiments and requires justification.
- Initi altheoretical basis. This implies a set of primary axioms, postulates, assumptions and general laws, which together will allow us to describe the idealized object of consideration.
- Logic. This is understood as setting a framework for conclusions and evidence.
- A set of statements. This includes the evidence that makes up the bulk of the available knowledge.
Use
It should be noted that theories are the basis for substantiating a number of processes, as well as various practices. Moreover, they can be formed simultaneously both on practical experience and on the basis of analytical reflections. Therefore, there are, for example, different types of theory of state and law. Moreover, it is worth noting that the same subject can be described from a different point of view, and its characteristics, accordingly, will vary.
Somewhere this lends itself to standardization, as evidenced by the types of economic theory, and new directions are outlined over time. Nevertheless, a number of provisions within them still attract fans to criticize. Although for some assumptions (and eventually the foundations in science), sometimes it is simply necessary to accumulate a certain amount of knowledge. Before the theories of the origin of man by Lamarck and Darwin were created, an extensive classification of organisms was carried out. The history of science deals with the study of such features. As this discipline has shown, the full development of the theory (which includes its modification, refinement, improvement and extrapolation to newspheres) in time can stretch for more than one century.
True
An important characteristic for any theory is its practical confirmation, which determines the degree of its validity. For example, we have a certain political theory that says that in the current situation it is necessary to act in this way. If there is no practical confirmation or refutation of its effectiveness, then the decision to use it lies with the people in power.
And in the case when there is a certain validity regarding it, then it is already possible to study the existing experience and make an appropriate decision on whether or not to implement it. The theory of analysis plays a significant role in this. Thanks to the methodology developed within its framework, it is possible, using the scientific method, to calculate the probability of successful implementation, as well as to detect the location of "pitfalls".
