What is philosophical criticism? The answer to this question can be given from different positions. In our article, we will analyze in detail what the direction of criticism in philosophy is, as well as what branches it has.
Sources of criticism
Criticism owes its roots to scholastic, that is, medieval philosophy. As you know, until the XIV century, most scientific research evolved around the theory of God. This phenomenon is called theology. However, the too idealistic views of medieval philosophers began to be debunked closer to the Renaissance. The "new school" began to accuse the "old" school of excessive dogmatism, consisting in abstract logic and inaccurate reasoning. At the same time, the new school began to adhere to the ideas of nominalism, which is quite far from skepticism and empirical research programs. It was a spontaneous movement that manifested itself in many thinkers at the same time.
Gradually, two philosophical centers emerged - in Oxford and Paris. The most typical and influential representative of early criticism was William of Ockham, a British philosopher in the first half of the 14th century. Exactlythanks to him, the first principles of criticism in philosophy began to appear.
Aristotelianism as a harbinger of criticism
So, what is the concept under consideration? Criticism is a critical attitude to something, a philosophical position, which is characterized by strong anti-dogmatism. In order to better understand what the philosophical direction in question is, you need to trace its history from ancient times.
Arab-Jewish philosophy leaned toward skepticism. There was a theory of dual truth. Averroists believed that proof is a matter of reason, and truth is a matter of faith. There was also Augustinism, which associated supernatural enlightenment with the conditions for knowing the truth. Finally, Aristotelianism is the closest to criticism of the direction of all the ancient philosophical schools. Aristotle distinguished conjecture from knowledge, which provides truth. Conjecture, on the other hand, has a place only in the realm of probability.
Scotism as a harbinger of criticism
In scholastic philosophy, the source of criticism is the teaching of Duns Scotus. By virtue of his ultra-realism, he was the most resistant to the new aspirations that skepticism was preparing. This is connected with theological voluntarism. Scott argued that all truths depend on the will of God. They would be a delusion if the will of God were otherwise. From this we can conclude: the truth is imaginary.
Here we should highlight the second important aspect. Scott doubts the evidence of the allegationstheological character. The theological skepticism of 14th-century modernists only continued this tradition.
Scott paved the path to intuitionism. The philosopher managed to strictly separate intuitive knowledge from abstract. If we talk about the founder of scholastic criticism, Ockham, then he was closer to Scotus than to Thomas Aquinas. And this is not accidental: the very evolution of philosophy followed the path from Thomism to Scotism, and from Scotism to Occamism. Criticism is intelligence. Thomism distrusted reason. To receive the truth, he preferred faith to a greater extent.
Paris trend in criticism
Paris direction appeared before Oxford. Its representatives are the Dominicans, Duran from the monastery of San Porziano, as well as Harvey from Natal. There were also Franciscans like John of Poliazzoi and Pierre Haureol. It was Aureole who most fully and accurately formed new ideas in the early phase of the new French wave.
Aureole himself was a nominalist. He argued that not things are considered common, but only a variant of their understanding by the mind. In reality, there are only single objects. The second point is that we do not know in a "generalized and abstract way", but through experience. Haureol himself spoke out in defense of empiricism. The third point is the skeptical views of the philosopher. He relied on the fundamental postulates of psychology - like the soul, body, and so on. Fourthly, Haureole was considered a phenomenalist. He argued that the direct object of knowledge is not things, but only phenomena. The fifth and last moment in the philosophy of the Parisian trendis logical conceptualism. A positive view was cast on the nature of universals.
Oxford trend in criticism
The second direction of early criticism is the Oxford school. It began with insignificant thinkers preaching skeptical tendencies. However, soon the direction quickly made up for lost time thanks to an outstanding personality - William of Ockham. This philosopher came to his views, despite the Parisian modernism. On the contrary, he specifically emphasized the fact that he met Halo when his positions were already formed.
Occam's views were based on Oxford theology and natural sciences. Ockham had a strong influence on the individuality of the French followers. The "New Way" was accepted both in England and in France, and in exactly the form that William of Ockham gave it. The philosopher began to be called the "venerable founder" of a new trend in scholasticism.
Occam's philosophy
To give a definition of reasonable criticism without a description of Occam's philosophy will not work. The philosopher opposed the established scholasticism, which had already become classical. He was the spokesman for a new spirit. William's positions were formed according to the following theses:
- anti-dogmatism;
- anti-systematic;
- anti-realism;
- anti-rationality.
Special attention should be paid to anti-realism. The point is that instead of formingsystem, Occam was engaged in the criticism of knowledge. As a result of criticism, he came to the conclusion that most scientific research is based on a small number of proper reasons. Occam called the main organ of knowledge not discursive reason, but direct intuition. In general terms, he saw the results of speech and thinking, to which universal existence does not correspond in any way.
Ockham replaced old concepts with new ones. Thus, epistemological problems came to the fore. He also opened the way to fideism and skepticism. Intuitionism took the field of rationalism. In turn, nominalism and psychological conceptualism replaced realism.
Skepticism in the system of criticism
So, the essence of criticism was revealed, though not fully, by William of Ockham. This concept was further developed through the prism of skepticism. So, with regard to rational knowledge about God and the world, which was formed by scholasticism, Occam's position was initially skeptical. First of all, the philosopher tried to show that theology in itself is not a science. All of its provisions were questioned by Ockham. If earlier philosophers gradually freed themselves from the shackles of theology, then William stepped on its foundations.
In rational psychology, as Ockham argued, the original positions also do not contain any evidence. There is no way to be completely convinced that the soul is immaterial, and the person obeys it. Moreover, there is no evidence in ethics. According to Ockham, the divine will is the only meaning of the moral god, andno objective laws can limit his omnipotence.
Criticism in science
Having de alt with the history and basic foundations of criticism, we should now pay attention to its modern understanding. Criticism in a general sense is the ability to reflect in a timely and qualitative manner in the mode of negative connection. The main principle here is the ability to turn around to the initial premises, which can be events and situations, ideas and theories, principles and various kinds of statements.
Criticism is closely connected with the attitude to fundamentally change one's own position, if it turns out to be weak under the onslaught of a large number of counterarguments.
At the same time, criticism is a readiness to defend and defend the proposed idea. This direction involves both a dialogue and a polylogue with many participants at once.
Kant's Criticism
The most vivid criticism was expressed in the works of Immanuel Kant. For the famous philosopher, criticism was idealistic philosophy, which denied the cognizability of the objective world. She considered her main goal to criticize the cognitive ability of the person himself.
There are two periods in Kant's works: "sub-critical" and "critical". The first period includes Kant's gradual liberation from the ideas of Wolffian metaphysics. Criticism is considered the time of raising the question of the possibility of metaphysics as a science. There was some socialcriticism. New guidelines were created in philosophy, the theory of the activity of consciousness, and much more. Kant reveals his ideas about criticism in the famous Critique of Pure Reason.
