An abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and until now, researchers do not give up hope to discover something new in the known facts. The moments seem exciting and unusual when you realize that once on the same lands that we now walk on, dinosaurs lived, knights fought, ancient people set up camps. World history bases its periodization on two principles that are relevant for the formation of the human race - the material for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of "Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron Age" appeared. Each of these periodizations has become a step in the development of mankind, the next round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were no absolutely passive moments in history. From time immemorial to the present day, there has been a regular replenishment of knowledge and the development of new ways to obtain useful materials.
World history and the firsttime period dating methods
The natural sciences have become a tool for dating time spans. In particular, one can cite the radiocarbon method, geological dating, and dendrochronology. The rapid development of ancient man made it possible to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period in the history of mankind began, other prerequisites for dating arose, which were based on the time of existence of various states and civilizations. It is tentatively believed that the period of separation of man from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD, there was a period of Antiquity. Before the Renaissance, there were the Middle Ages. Until the end of the First World War, the period of New History lasted, and now the time of the Newest has come. Historians of different times put their "anchors" of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle between Asia and Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the establishment of the Roman Republic as the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree in their assumption that culture and art were of little importance for the Iron Age, since the tools of war and labor came to the fore.
Metal Era Background
In primitive history, the Stone Age is distinguished, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each of the periods is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. At first, of the guns, the most widespread washand chopped. Later, tools appeared from the elements of the stone, and not the whole nodule. During this period, the development of fire, the creation of the first clothes from skins, the first religious cults and housing arrangements took place. During the period of a semi-nomadic lifestyle of a person and hunting for large animals, more advanced weapons were required. A further round of development of stone processing technologies occurred at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding spread, and ceramic production appeared. In the era of metal, copper and its processing technologies were mastered. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the foundation for work for the future. The study of the properties of metals consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its spread. The Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age is a single harmonious process of human development based on mass movements of peoples.
Era Length Facts
The distribution of iron refers to the primitive and early class history of mankind. Trends in metallurgy and the production of tools become characteristic features of the period. Even in the ancient world, an idea was formed about the classification of centuries according to the material. The early Iron Age was studied and continues to be studied by scientists in various fields. In Western Europe, voluminous works were published byGörnes, Montelius, Tishler, Reinecke, Kostszewski, etc. In Eastern Europe, the corresponding textbooks, monographs and maps on the history of the Ancient World were published by Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gauthier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov. often consideredthe spread of iron was a characteristic feature of the culture of primitive tribes that lived outside civilizations. In fact, all countries at one time survived the Iron Age. The Bronze Age was only a prerequisite for this. It has not occupied such a vast amount of time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age spans from the 9th to the 7th century BC. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received an impetus to develop their own iron metallurgy. Since this metal remains the most important material of production, modernity is part of this century.
Period culture
The development of production and distribution of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. There were economic prerequisites for working relationships and the collapse of the tribal way of life. Ancient history marks the accumulation of values, the growth of we alth inequality and the mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Fortifications spread widely, the formation of a class society and state began. More funds became the private property of a select few, slavery arose and social stratification progressed.
How did the age of metal manifest itself in the USSR?
At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient places of development, one can note Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the early Iron Age have been preserved in the southern European part of the USSR. But metallurgy gained mass fame here in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological artifacts made of bronze in Transcaucasia, culturalrelics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During the excavations of the Scythian settlements, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. The finds were made at the Kamenskoye settlement near Nikopol.
History of materials in Kazakhstan
Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. This is the early one, which lasted from the 8th to the 3rd century BC, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Each country has a period of iron distribution in its history, but the features of this process are highly dependent on the region. Thus, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. Cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture are widespread in South Kazakhstan. The climatic conditions of Western Kazakhstan did not imply farming. And Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan was inhabited by people adapted to the harsh winter. These three regions, radically different in terms of living conditions, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan became the place of formation of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan became a haven for the Middle Zhuz. Western Kazakhstan is represented by the Junior Zhuz.
Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan
The endless steppes of Central Asia have long been a place of residence for nomads. Here, ancient history is represented by burial mounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with paintings or "mustache",performing, according to scientists, the functions of a lighthouse and a compass in the steppe. The attention of historians is attracted by the Tasmolin culture, named after the area in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a man and a horse were recorded in a large and small mound. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the burial mounds of the Tasmolin culture to be the most common monuments of the Early Iron Age.
Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan
This region is distinguished by the presence of cattle. The locals switched from farming to a sedentary and nomadic way of life. The Tasmolin culture is revered in this region as well. Birlik, Alypkash, Bekteniz mounds and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel attract the attention of researchers of early Iron Age monuments. On the right bank of the Esil River, a fortification of the early Iron Age has been preserved. The art of melting and processing of non-ferrous metals was developed here. Produced metal products were transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan was several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of its country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.
Guarding the Gold
The majestic burial mounds of East Kazakhstan mainly accumulated in the Shilikty valley. There are more than fifty of them here. In 1960, a study was made of the largest of the barrows, which is called the Golden. This peculiar monument to the Iron Age was erected in the 8th-9th century BC. Zaysan districtEast Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred largest burial mounds, of which 50 are called Tsar's and may contain gold. In the Shilikty valley there is the oldest royal burial in the land of Kazakhstan dating back to the 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubaev. Among archaeologists, this discovery made a noise, just like the third "golden man" of Kazakhstan. The buried person was wearing clothes decorated with 4325 golden figurative plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became another proof that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for performing ritual rites, sacrifices and prayers.
Early Iron Age in nomadic culture
There are not so many documentary evidence of the ancient culture of Kazakhstan. Mostly information is obtained from archaeological sites and excavations. Much has been said about the nomads regarding song and dance art. Separately, it is worth noting the skill in the manufacture of ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The spread of iron in everyday life and production was the impetus for the improvement of a unique heating system: a chimney, which was laid horizontally along the wall, evenly warmed the whole house. Nomads invented many things that are familiar today, both for domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with trousers, stirrups, a yurt and a curved saber. Metal armor was developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior himself was providediron armor.
Achievements and openings of the period
The Iron Age became the third in line for the Stone and Bronze Ages. But by value, no doubt, it is considered the first. Until modern times, iron has remained the material basis of all inventions of mankind. All important discoveries in the field of production are connected with its application. This metal has a higher melting point than copper. In its pure form, natural iron does not exist, and it is very difficult to carry out the process of smelting from ore because of its infusibility. This metal caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared with previous archaeological epochs, the Iron Age is the shortest, but the most productive. Initially, mankind recognized meteoric iron. Some original products and decorations from it were found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be attributed to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, a technology for obtaining iron from ore was developed, but for quite a long time this metal was considered rare and expensive.
The widespread production of weapons and tools from iron began to be engaged in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and India. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, provoked a technical revolution that expands the power of man over nature. Now the clearing of large forest areas for crops has been simplified. Modernization of labor tools andland improvement. Accordingly, new crafts were quickly learned, especially blacksmithing and weapons. Shoemakers, who received more advanced tools, did not stand aside. Bricklayers and miners have become more efficient.
Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era, all the main varieties of hand tools were already in use (with the exception of screws and hinged scissors). Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads became much simpler, military equipment advanced a step forward, and a metal coin entered circulation. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of a class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called military democracy.
Possible development paths
It is worth noting that meteoritic iron existed in small quantities even in Egypt, but the spread of the metal became possible with the beginning of ore smelting. Initially, iron was smelted only when such a need arose. Thus, fragments of metal inclusions were found in the monuments of Syria and Iraq, which were erected no later than 2700 BC. But after the 11th century BC, the blacksmiths of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of systematically making objects from iron. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were kept secret and passed down from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the widespread use of metal for the manufacture of tools were recorded inIsrael, namely in Gerar near Gaza. A huge number of hoes, sickles and coulters made of iron dating back to the period after 1200 BC have been found here. Melting furnaces were also found at the excavation sites.
Special metal processing technologies belong to the masters of Western Asia, from whom they were borrowed by the masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe. The British technological revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in mastering the metal around the same time, with further transfer of skill to the south side. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring turned iron. European colonists brought their knowledge of metalworking technology to Australia and the New World. After the invention of blower bellows, iron casting became widespread on a massive scale. Cast iron has become an indispensable material for creating all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.
