At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of crisis. Exhausted by wars, backward in all respects, the country needed radical transformations. The Tanzimat reforms, which Abdul Majid I carried out since 1839, had a positive effect on her. But in the 70s, under the rule of Sultan Abdulaziz, they came to naught. The state is practically bankrupt. Oppressed by taxes, Christians rebelled. The threat of intervention by European powers loomed. Then the new Ottomans, led by Midhat Pasha, who dreamed of a better future for the state, carried out several palace coups, as a result of which Abdul-Hamid II came to power.
The man on whom the progressive intelligentsia pinned their hopes became one of the most cruel autocrats of the empire, and the period of his reign was called "Zulum", which means "oppression" or "tyranny" in Turkish.
Personality of Abdul-Hamid II
Abdul-Hamid II was born on September 22, 1842. His parents were Sultan Abdul Mejid I and his fourth wife, Tirimyuzhgan Kadyn Efendi, who, according to one version, had Armenian,the other is of Circassian origin.
The future emperor received an excellent education. He was especially good at military affairs. Abdul-Hamid was fluent in several languages, was not indifferent to poetry and music. He especially loved opera, which captivated the future caliph during his travels in Europe. For the Ottoman Empire, such art was something incomprehensible and alien, but Abdul-Hamid made a lot of efforts to develop it in his homeland. He even wrote an opera himself and staged it in Istanbul. When Abdul-Hamid ascended the throne on August 31, 1876, no one could have imagined that he would become the creator of not only works of art, but also a bloody regime that would take hundreds of thousands of lives.
Ascension to the throne of the "bloody Sultan"
In those years, the new Ottomans tried with all their might to achieve change and the constitution. The conservative-minded Abdul-Aziz was deposed with their participation on May 30, 1876, and a few days later he was killed. In his place, the constitutional movement put Murat V, Abdul-Hamid's brother. He was distinguished by meekness of character, sympathized with enlightenment and reforms. However, bloody feuds, sudden gains in power and alcohol abuse caused a severe nervous breakdown in the new sultan, pampered by life in hothouse conditions. Murat V was unable to manage the empire, and most importantly, could not give the country a constitution.
The situation in the state and beyond was aggravated. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the empire, trying to defend themselves against the Christians of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who rebelled against the Turkish yoke. Murat V was announcedcrazy, and Abdul-Hamid II received power, promising the new Ottomans to fulfill all their demands.
Proclamation of the first Turkish constitution
In the depths of his soul, the caliph was not a supporter of liberal ideas. But it was dangerous to express openly the position of the Turkish intelligentsia that brought him to the throne. The new Ottoman sultan began to delay the proclamation of the constitution, citing its imperfections. The Basic Law was constantly reworked and refined. Meanwhile, Russia demanded a peace treaty with Serbia and Montenegro, and together with the European powers began to develop a project for the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In the current tense situation, Midhat Pasha was ready for any sacrifice for the sake of proclaiming the constitution. Abdul-Hamid appointed the head of the new Ottomans as Grand Vizier and agreed to publish it, subject to the addition of one clause to Art. 113, according to which, the Sultan can expel any person objectionable to him from the country. The constitution, which granted freedom and security to every person, regardless of religion, was proclaimed on December 23, 1876 at the Istanbul Conference. By his decision, Abdul-Hamid temporarily paralyzed Europe's efforts to liberate Christians and retained virtually unlimited power.
The massacre of the new Ottomans
Immediately after the proclamation of the constitution, the caliph began to abuse the treasury and introduce repressions against the capital's newspapers. Such actions led to violent clashes with Midhat Pasha, who openly showed discontentactivities of the sultan. Abdul-Hamid ignored the protests until the grand vizier wrote him a bold letter. In it, Midhat Pasha argued that the caliph himself hindered the development of the state. The Ottoman sultan, outraged by such impudence, ordered the arrest of the head of the constitutionalists and taken to the Izzedin ship, the captain of which was to take Midhat Pasha to any foreign port of his choice. The Caliph had the right to do so thanks to the addition to Art. 113 Constitution of the Ottoman Empire.
In the following months, there were many repressions against the liberals, but they did not cause public outrage. The creators of the first constitution did not take care of class support, so their good undertakings were easily erased by Abdul-Hamid II who deceived them.
Beginning of the Zuluma era
The Caliph's plans did not include either the subordination of the constitution or the observance of the requirements of the European powers. Abdul-Hamid II simply ignored the protocol drawn up by them shortly after the Istanbul Conference, demanding an end to violence against the striking Christians. And in April 1877, Russia declared war on the empire, which showed all the rottenness and backwardness of the Sultanate regime. In March 1878, it ended with the complete defeat of the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime, the results of the war were summed up at the Berlin Congress, the cunning Abdul-Hamid dissolved the parliament for an indefinite period, thereby depriving the constitution of its force.
The war brought enormous territorial losses to the empire. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and other provinces came out of her power. On thethe state was imposed a huge indemnity, and Abdul-Hamid II, following the results of the congress, had to make reforms in the regions inhabited by Armenians. It would seem that the life of Christians should improve, but the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire did not fulfill his promises. Moreover, after the inglorious defeat in the war, liberal thought was finally crushed, and the country was hit by dark times, called "Zulum".
Economic decline of the country
Abdul-Hamid completely seized power. He tried to preserve the territorial integrity of the state through the ideology of pan-Islamism. The 99th caliph pandered to the interests of the Arab, Circassian and Kurdish feudal lords, the higher Muslim clergy and large bureaucracy. They actually ruled the country. Porta has become an uncomplaining toy in their hands. The treasury was replenished at the expense of external loans. Debts grew, and concessions were granted to foreigners. The state once again declared itself bankrupt. The empire's creditors formed the "Ottoman Public Debt Administration". The country completely fell under international financial control, and foreign capital dominated it, which simply robbed the already poor population. The tax burden in the country has increased significantly. The great power has declined into a foreign semi-colony.
Paranoia and tyranny
Under the circumstances, the Sultan feared most of all the fate of Abdul-Aziz and Murat V. Fear of a possible palace coup and deposition turned into paranoia, to which absolutely everything was subordinated. The Yildiz Palace, where the caliph settled, was filled with guards.
In the same place, the bureaus he created, which controlled the activities of all government departments, were constantly working, and the fate of the highest ranks of the empire was decided. Any trifle that caused Abdul-Hamid's displeasure could cost a person not only the loss of his position, but also his life. The intelligentsia became the main enemy of the Sultan, so he actively encouraged ignorance. Not a single minister who headed the departments of the Porte had a higher education. Because of him, one could be considered unreliable, and therefore objectionable to the Sultan. The provincial officials could not at all boast of a high cultural level. Arbitrariness and venality reigned in their circles. Abdul-Hamid himself preferred not to leave the palace. The only exception was the selamlik. He organized a large-scale spy network and created a secret police, which became famous throughout the world. She spent a fabulous amount from the state treasury.
Spy network and secret police
No one in the country felt safe. People feared even those closest to them: husbands - wives, fathers - children. Denunciations were circulated, followed by arrests and exile. Often a person was simply killed without trial or investigation. People knew the ringleaders of the investigation by sight, and when they appeared, they tried to hide. Surveillance was also carried out for the highest ranks. The Sultan knew absolutely everything about them, including food preferences. Even those closest to the caliph could not live in peace. Inside the palace camarilla hung an oppressive atmosphere of fear and suspicion. Spies were in every corner of the country. Almost all supporters emigrated from itreforms.
Comprehensive censorship
The print was heavily censored. The number of publications has dropped sharply. Words such as "freedom", "tyranny", "equality" were considered seditious. For their use, you could lose your life.
The books of Voltaire, Byron, Tolstoy and even Shakespeare, in particular his tragedy "Hamlet", were banned, because the assassination of the king was committed in it. Turkish writers did not even try to deal with social and political issues in their works.
Universities were closely monitored. Any free thinking was nipped in the bud. The history of Islam and the Ottoman dynasty has replaced the traditional lectures on world history.
Mass killing of Armenians
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire deliberately sowed discord between the Muslim and Christian population of the country. This policy was beneficial. Enmity made people weaker and distracted from the main problems. No one in the state could give a fitting rebuff to the caliph. He provoked hatred between peoples, using the detective apparatus and the police. Then, with the help of the Kurds, the Hamidiye cavalry was created. Sultan's thugs terrified the population. The Armenians suffered especially from their terror. About 300,000 people were killed between 1894 and 1896.
Armenians simultaneously paid tribute to the Kurds and taxes to the empire. Disenfranchised, tired of the arbitrariness of the authorities, people tried to protest. The answer was plundered villages strewn with corpses. Armenians were burned alive, mutilated and killed by entire villages. So, in the Erzurum massacre took part andmilitary personnel, and ordinary Turkish population. And in a letter from an Ottoman soldier addressed to his family, it was said that not a single Turk was wounded, and not a single Armenian was left alive.
The birth of opposition
Among the widespread terror, devastation and poverty, the Turkish army stood out. The Sultan made cardinal changes in it. They had high-class military training and received an excellent education. In fact, the Turkish soldiers became the most enlightened people in the empire. Competent in all respects, they could not look calmly at what the despotic regime of Abdul-Hamid the 2nd was doing to their country. Before their eyes stood a humiliated and devastated empire, where arbitrariness and embezzlement, pogroms and robberies reigned; which Europe actually ruled, taking away its best provinces.
No matter how much the Sultan strangled liberal thoughts in the minds of the new intelligentsia, they were still born and developed. And in 1889, a secret group of Young Turks appeared, who laid the foundation for resistance to the bloody despotism of Abdul-Hamid. In 1892, Porta found out about him. The cadets were arrested, but after a few months the Sultan released them and even allowed them to continue their studies. Abdul-Hamid did not want to inflame the atmosphere in the schools and attributed their actions to a youthful trick. And the revolutionary movement continued to expand.
Young Turkish Revolution
In ten years, many Young Turkish organizations have appeared. Leaflets, pamphlets, newspapers were distributed in the cities, which denounced the regime of the Sultan and propagandized it.overthrow. Anti-government sentiment reached its climax when a revolution took place in Russia in 1905, which responded vividly in the hearts of the Turkish intelligentsia.
The Caliph lost his peace and spent sleepless nights in fear that rumors about her, in particular about the rebellion of Russian sailors on the Potemkin battleship, would penetrate Istanbul. He even ordered an investigation on Turkish warships to reveal revolutionary sentiment. Sultan Abdul-Hamid II felt that his reign was coming to an end. And in 1905, an attempt was made on him, which ended in failure.
Two years later, a congress of all Young Turkish organizations was held, and it was decided to depose the Sultan by joint efforts and restore the constitution. The population of Macedonia and the Sultan's army took the side of the Young Turks. However, the caliph was not overthrown. He made concessions, and the constitution was re-declared on July 10, 1908.
The end of the Zuluma era
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire fulfilled all the demands of the Young Turks, but secretly plotted against the constitution. History repeated itself, only the end was different. Together with their son Burkhaneddin, they gathered adherents among the regiments of the capital, scattering gold to the right and left. On an April night in 1909, they organized a mutiny. Young Turk soldiers from the same regiments were captured and many were killed. The army moved to the parliament building and demanded a change of ministers. Abdul-Hamid later tried to prove that he had nothing to do with the rebellion, but to no avail. The Young Turk "Action Army" captured Istanbul andoccupied the Sultan's palace. Surrounded by reproachful favorites and family members, cut off from the world, he was forced to surrender. On April 27, 1909, the Sultan was overthrown and exiled to Thessaloniki. Thus was put an end to the regime of tyranny, which Abdul-Hamid diligently created. The wives went with him. But not all, but only the most faithful.
Family of the 99th Caliph
Abdul-Hamid's family life was typical of an Ottoman sultan. The Caliph married 13 times. Of all his chosen ones, he was especially attached to two: Mushfika and Saliha. It is reliably known that they did not leave the deposed sultan in trouble and went into exile with him. Not all the wives of the Ottoman Sultan had such a successful relationship. He divorced Safinaz Nurefzun during his reign, and Thessaloniki separated him from some of them. An unenviable fate awaited the heirs of the caliph after Abdul-Hamid was overthrown. The Sultan's children were expelled from Turkey in 1924. The former caliph himself returned to Istanbul a few years after his exile and died there in 1918.
