The first science of time is astronomy. The results of observations in ancient observatories were used for agriculture and religious rites. However, with the development of crafts, it became necessary to measure short periods of time. Thus, mankind came to the invention of the clock. The process was long, filled with the hard work of the best minds.
History of watches goes back many centuries, it is the oldest invention of mankind. From a stick stuck in the ground to an ultra-precise chronometer - a journey of hundreds of generations. If we rank the achievements of human civilization, then in the nomination "great inventions" the clock will be in second place after the wheel.
There was a time when a calendar was enough for people. But crafts appeared, there was a need to fix the duration of technological processes. It took hours, the purpose of which is to measure time intervals shorter than a day. For this, man has used various physical processes for centuries. The constructions that implement them were also corresponding.
The history of watches is divided into twolarge period. The first is several millennia long, the second is less than one.
1. The history of the clock, called the simplest. This category includes solar, water, fire and sand appliances. The period ends with the study of the mechanical clocks of the pendulum period. These were medieval chimes.
2. A new history of watches, starting with the invention of the pendulum and balance, which marked the beginning of the development of classical oscillatory chronometry. This period is not over yet.
Sundial
The most ancient ones that have come down to us. Therefore, it is the history of the sundial that opens the parade of great inventions in the field of chronometry. Despite their apparent simplicity, they were distinguished by a wide variety of designs.
The sundial is based on the apparent movement of the Sun throughout the day. The countdown is based on the shadow cast by the axis. Their use is possible only on a sunny day. Ancient Egypt had favorable climatic conditions for this. The greatest distribution on the banks of the Nile received a sundial, which had the form of obelisks. They were installed at the entrance to the temples. A gnomon in the form of a vertical obelisk and a scale marked on the ground - this is what the ancient sundial looked like. The photo below shows one of them. One of the Egyptian obelisks transported to Europe has survived to this day. A 34-meter-high gnomon currently stands in one of the squares in Rome.
Ordinary sundial had a significant drawback. They knew about him, but put up with him for a long time. In different seasons, that is, in summer and winter, the duration of the hour was not the same. But in the period when the agrarian system and handicraft relations dominated, there was no need for an accurate measurement of time. Therefore, the sundial successfully existed until the late Middle Ages.
The gnomon was replaced by more progressive designs. Improved sundials, in which this shortcoming was eliminated, had curved scales. In addition to this improvement, various versions were used. So, in Europe, wall and window sundials were common.
Further improvement took place in 1431. It consisted in orienting the shadow arrow parallel to the earth's axis. Such an arrow was called a semiaxis. Now the shadow, rotating around the half-axis, moved uniformly, turning 15° per hour. Such a design made it possible to produce a sundial that was accurate enough for its time. The photo shows one of these devices preserved in China.
For proper installation, they began to supply the structure with a compass. It became possible to use the clock everywhere. It was possible to make even portable models. Since 1445, sundial began to be built in the form of a hollow hemisphere, equipped with an arrow, the shadow of which fell on the inner surface.
Search for alternatives
Despite the fact that the sundial was convenient and accurate, it had serious objective flaws. They were completely dependent on the weather, and their functioning was limited to partday between sunrise and sunset. In search of an alternative, scientists sought to find other ways to measure time intervals. It was required that they not be associated with the observation of the movement of stars and planets.
Search led to the creation of artificial time standards. For example, it was the interval required for some specific amount of substance to flow or burn.
The simplest watches created on this basis have come a long way in the development and improvement of designs, thereby paving the way for the creation of not only mechanical watches, but also automation devices.
Clepsydra
The name “clepsydra” has stuck to the water clock, so there is a misconception that it was first invented in Greece. In reality it was not so. The oldest, very primitive clepsydra was found in the temple of Amun in Phoebe and is kept in the museum of Cairo.
When creating a water clock, it is necessary to ensure a uniform decrease in the water level in the vessel when it flows through the bottom calibrated hole. This was achieved by giving the vessel the shape of a cone, tapering closer to the bottom. It was only in the Middle Ages that a regularity describing the rate of fluid outflow depending on its level and the shape of the container was obtained. Prior to this, the shape of the vessel for the water clock was selected empirically. For example, the Egyptian clepsydra, discussed above, gave a uniform decrease in level. Even with some error.
Since clepsydra did not depend on the time of day and weather, it met the requirements of continuoustime measurements. In addition, the need for further improvement of the device, the addition of various functions, provided space for designers to fly their imaginations. Thus, clepsydras of Arab origin were works of art combined with high functionality. They were equipped with additional hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms: an audible timer, a night lighting system.
Not many names of the creators of the water clock have been preserved in history. They were made not only in Europe, but also in China and India. We have received information about a Greek mechanic named Ctesibius of Alexandria, who lived 150 years before the new era. In clepsydra, Ctesibius used gears, the theoretical development of which was carried out by Aristotle.
Fire watch
This group appeared at the beginning of the 13th century. The first firing clocks were thin candles up to 1 meter high with marks applied to them. Sometimes certain divisions were equipped with metal pins, which, falling on a metal stand when the wax burned around them, made a distinct sound. Such devices served as a prototype of the alarm clock.
With the advent of transparent glass, fire clocks are transformed into icon lamps. A scale was applied on the wall, according to which, as the oil burned out, the time was determined.
The most widespread such devices are in China. Along with the icon lamps, another type of fire clock was common in this country - wick clocks. You can saythat it was a dead end branch.
Hourglass
When they were born, it is not known exactly. The only thing that can be said with certainty is that they could not have appeared before the invention of glass.
Hourglass are two transparent glass flasks. Through the connecting neck, the contents are poured from the upper flask into the lower one. And in our time, you can still meet the hourglass. The photo shows one of the models, stylized antique.
Medieval craftsmen in the manufacture of instruments decorated the hourglass with exquisite decor. They were used not only to measure periods of time, but also as interior decoration. In the houses of many nobles and dignitaries one could see luxurious hourglasses. The photo shows one of these models.
The hourglass came to Europe quite late - at the end of the Middle Ages, but their distribution was rapid. Due to their simplicity, the ability to use at any time, they quickly became very popular.
One of the shortcomings of the hourglass is the rather short amount of time measured without turning it over. Cassettes made up of them did not take root. The distribution of such models was slowed down by their low accuracy, as well as wear during long-term operation. It happened in the following way. The calibrated hole in the diaphragm between the flasks was worn out, increasing in diameter, sand particles, on the contrary, were crushed, decreasing in size. The flow rate increasedtime was decreasing.
Mechanical watches: prerequisites for the emergence of
The need for a more accurate measurement of time periods with the development of production and social relations has steadily increased. The best minds have been working to solve this problem.
The invention of the mechanical clock is a milestone event that took place in the Middle Ages, because they are the most complex device created in those years. In turn, this served as an impetus for the further development of science and technology.
The invention of watches and their improvement required more advanced, precise and high-performance technological equipment, new methods of calculation and design. This was the beginning of a new era.
The creation of mechanical watches became possible with the invention of the spindle escapement. This device converted the translational movement of a weight hanging on a rope into an oscillatory movement back and forth of an hour wheel. Continuity is clearly seen here - after all, complex models of clepsydra already had a dial, a gear train, and a battle. All that was needed was to change the driving force: replace the jet of water with a heavy weight that was easier to handle, and add a descender and a speed controller.
Mechanisms for tower clocks were created on this basis. Spindle-operated chimes have been in use since about 1340 and have become the pride of many cities and cathedrals.
The rise of classical oscillatory chronometry
The history of watches has preserved for posterity the names of scientists and inventors whomade it possible to create them. The theoretical basis was the discovery made by Galileo Galilei, who voiced the laws describing the oscillations of the pendulum. He is also the author of the idea of mechanical pendulum clocks.
Galileo's idea was realized in 1658 by the talented Dutchman Christian Huygens. He is also the author of the invention of the balance regulator, which made it possible to create a pocket watch, and then a wrist watch. In 1674, Huygens developed an improved regulator by attaching a hair-shaped coil spring to the flywheel.
Another landmark invention belongs to a Nuremberg watchmaker named Peter Henlein. He invented the mainspring, and in 1500 he created a pocket watch based on it.
In parallel, there were changes in appearance. At first, one arrow was enough. But as clocks became very accurate, they required a corresponding indication. In 1680, a minute hand was added, and the dial took on the form familiar to us. In the eighteenth century, they began to install a second hand. First side, and later it became central.
In the seventeenth century, the creation of watches was transferred to the category of art. Exquisitely decorated cases, enameled dials, which by that time were covered with glass - all this turned movements into a luxury item.
The work on improving and complicating the instruments continued uninterrupted. Increased running accuracy. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, ruby and sapphire stones began to be used as supports for the balance wheel and gears. This made it possible to reduce friction,improve accuracy and increase power reserve. Interesting complications have appeared - a perpetual calendar, automatic winding, a power reserve indicator.
The impetus for the development of pendulum clocks was the invention of the English watchmaker Clement. Around 1676 he developed the anchor escapement. This device was well suited to pendulum clocks, which had a small amplitude of oscillation.
Quartz
Further improvement of instruments for measuring time was like an avalanche. The development of electronics and radio engineering paved the way for the emergence of quartz watches. Their work is based on the piezoelectric effect. It was discovered in 1880, but the quartz clock was not made until 1937. The newly created quartz models differed from classical mechanical ones in amazing accuracy. The era of electronic watches has begun. What makes them special?
Quartz watches have a mechanism consisting of an electronic unit and a so-called stepper motor. How it works? The engine, receiving a signal from the electronic unit, moves the arrows. Instead of the usual dial in a quartz watch, a digital display can be used. We call them electronic. In the West - quartz with digital indication. It doesn't change the essence.
Actually, a quartz watch is a mini-computer. Additional functions are added very easily: stopwatch, moon phase indicator, calendar, alarm clock. At the same time, the price of watches, unlike mechanics, does not increase so much. This makes them more accessible.
Quartz watches are very accurate. Their error is ±15 seconds/month. It is enough to correct the instrument readings twice a year.
Wall clocks
Digital indication and compactness are the distinguishing features of this kind of mechanisms. Electronic clocks are widely used as integrated clocks. They can be seen on the dashboard of a car, in a mobile phone, in a microwave and TV.
As an interior element, you can often find a more popular classic design, that is, with an arrow indication.
Electronic wall clock organically fit into the interior in the style of hi-tech, modern, techno. They attract primarily with their functionality.
According to the type of display, electronic watches are liquid crystal and LED. The latter are more functional as they are backlit.
According to the type of power source, electronic clocks (wall and desktop) are divided into network, powered by 220V, and battery. Devices of the second type are more convenient, since they do not require an outlet nearby.
Cuckoo wall clock
German craftsmen have been making them since the beginning of the eighteenth century. Traditionally, cuckoo wall clocks were made from wood. Richly decorated with carvings, made in the form of a birdhouse, they were the decoration of rich mansions.
At one time, inexpensive models were popular in the USSR and the post-Soviet space. For many years, the Mayak brand cuckoo wall clock was produced by the plantin the Russian city of Serdobsk. Weights in the form of fir cones, a house decorated with uncomplicated carvings, paper furs of a sound mechanism - this is how they were remembered by the representatives of the older generation.
The classic cuckoo wall clock is a rarity these days. This is due to the high price of quality models. If you do not take into account the quartz crafts of Asian craftsmen made of plastic, fabulous cuckoos cuckoo only in the homes of true connoisseurs of exotic watches. Precise, complex mechanism, leather bellows, exquisite carving on the body - all this requires a large amount of highly skilled manual labor. Only the most reputable manufacturers can produce such models.
Alarm Clock
These are the most common "walkers" in the interior.
Alarm clock is the first additional feature that was implemented in the watch. Patented in 1847 by Frenchman Antoine Redier.
In a classic mechanical desktop alarm clock, sound is produced by hammering on metal plates. Electronic models are more melodic.
By execution, alarm clocks are divided into small-sized and large-sized, desktop and travel.
Table alarm clocks are made with separate motors for clockwork and signal. They start separately.
With the advent of quartz watches, the popularity of mechanical alarm clocks has fallen. There are several reasons for this. Table clock-alarm clock with a quartz movement has a number of classic mechanical devices in front ofadvantages: they are more accurate, do not require daily winding, they are easy to match to the design of the room. In addition, they are light, not so afraid of bumps and falls.
Wrist mechanical alarm clocks are commonly referred to as "signal". Few companies produce such models. So, collectors know a model called "presidential cricket"
"Cricket" (according to English cricket) - under this name the Swiss company Vulcain produced watches with an alarm function. They are known for having been owned by American presidents: Dwight Eisenhower, Harry Truman, Richard Nixon and Lyndon Johnson.
History of watches for children
Time is a complex philosophical category and at the same time a physical quantity that needs to be measured. Man lives in time. Already from kindergarten, the program of education and upbringing provides for the development of time orientation skills in children.
You can teach a child to use a watch as soon as he has mastered the account. Layouts will help with this. You can combine a cardboard clock with the daily routine by placing all this for greater clarity on a piece of drawing paper. You can organize classes with elements of the game, using puzzles with pictures for this.
The history of watches for children aged 6-7 years is studied in thematic classes. The material must be presented in such a way as to arouse interest in the topic. Children in an accessible form are introduced to the history of watches, their types in the past and present. Then the acquired knowledge is consolidated. To do this, demonstrate the principle of operation of the simplest clock -solar, water and fire. These activities awaken children's interest in research, develop creative imagination and curiosity. They cultivate respect for time.
At school, in grades 5-7, the history of the invention of watches is studied. It is based on the knowledge gained by the child in the lessons of astronomy, history, geography, physics. In this way, the acquired material is consolidated. Watches, their invention and improvement are considered as part of the history of material culture, the achievements of which are aimed at meeting the needs of society. The topic of the lesson can be formulated as follows: “Inventions that changed the history of mankind.”
In high school, it is advisable to continue the study of watches as an accessory in terms of fashion and interior aesthetics. It is important to acquaint children with watch etiquette, to talk about the basic principles of choosing interior watches. One of the classes can be devoted to time management.
The history of the invention of watches clearly shows the continuity of generations, its study is an effective means of shaping the worldview of a young person.
