Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) occupies a prominent place in the history of sociology. Thanks to the activities of this professor at Harvard University, this discipline was brought to the international level. Parsons created a special style of thinking, which is characterized by the belief in the leading role of scientific knowledge, which is reduced to building systems and systematizing data. The main feature of this social thinker lies in the ability to differentiate the conceptual apparatus, as well as in identifying shades of meaning in statements that have already managed to occupy their strong niche in the scientific world, and in the ability to invent more and more new and improved analytical schemes.
To his ideas, thanks to which the theory of the social system of T. Parsons saw the light, the researcher approached, relying on knowledge in biology, as well as on the works of European sociologists and economists who worked in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. His teachers and idols were A. Marshall, E. Durkheim, M. Weber and V. Pareto.
Main idea
Parsons' theory was an alternative to the Marxist understanding of the paramount importance of the revolution in the global transformation of the world. The works of this scientist are most often rated as "difficult to understand." However, behind the palisade of complex argumentation and abstract definitions, one big idea can be traced in Parsons' theory. It lies in the fact that social reality, despite its inconsistency, complexity and immensity, has a systemic character.
T. Parsons was a staunch supporter of the fact that the beginning of scientific sociology was laid at the moment when all the connections between people began to be considered by scientists as a single system. The founder of this approach to building society was K. Marx.
In his theory of social action, Parsons built a new theoretical structural-functional model. He described it in his writings under the titles:
- "Social system";
- "Structure of social action";
- "The Social System and the Evolution of Action Theory".
The central idea of the theory of social action by T. Parsons was the idea of the presence of a certain state of society, when agreement dominates over conflict, that is, there is a consensus. What does this mean? This indicates the organization and orderliness of social actions and the entire social system as a whole.
In Parsons' theory, a conceptual scheme is built. Its core is the process of interaction of various social systems. At the same time, it is colored by personal characteristics and limitedpeople's culture.
Parsons' theory also considers the social order. According to the author, it contains a number of interrelated meanings. Among them is the idea that there are no accidents in the behavior of each individual. In all human actions there is complementarity, consistency, reciprocity, and, consequently, predictability.
If you carefully study the social theory of T. Parsons, it becomes clear that the author was primarily interested in problems relating to changes and destruction of the social order. The Harvard professor was able to answer the questions that once worried O. Comte. This scientist in his writings on "social statics" focused on self-preservation, stability and inertia of the social order. O. Comte believed that society is able to resist external and internal trends aimed at changing it.
Theory of T. Parsons is called synthetic. This is due to the fact that it relies on various combinations of factors such as value agreement, individual interest and coercion, as well as inertial models of the social system.
In Parsons' social theory, conflict is seen as the cause of disorganization and destabilization of society. Thus, the author singled out one of the anomalies. Parsons believed that the main task of the state is to maintain a conflict-free type of relationship between all the elements that make up society. This will ensure balance, cooperation andmutual understanding.
Let's briefly consider the theory of the social system of T. Parsons.
Fundamental Concepts
Parsons' Theory of Action considers the limits that exist in people's actions. Working on his work, the scientist used in it such concepts as:
- an organism that is the biophysical basis of an individual's behavior;
- action, which is a normatively regulated, purposeful and motivated behavior;
- doer, expressed by an empirical system of actions;
- situation, which means a zone of the outside world that is significant for a person;
- a social system in which there are one or more people between whom interdependent actions take place;
- orientation to the situation, that is, its significance for the individual, for his standards and plans.
Relationship Objects
The scheme of society considered in Parsons' theory includes the following elements:
- Social objects.
- Physical objects. These are groups and individuals. They are the means and at the same time the conditions for the implementation of actions by social objects.
- Cultural objects. These elements are holistic representations, symbols, systems and ideas of beliefs that have constancy and regularity.
Action elements
Any figure, according to Parsons, always correlates the situation with their goals and needs. In this case, the motivational component is connected. This is explainedthe fact that in any situation the main goal of the actor is to receive a "reward".
For the theory of action, the motive is not of paramount importance. It is much more important in this case to consider the experience of the actor, that is, his ability to determine the situation in order to organize the optimal impact on it. In this case, not just a reaction should follow. The actor needs to develop his own system of expectations, taking into account the peculiarities of the elements of situations.
However, sometimes things are much more complicated. So, in social situations, it is important for the actor to consider those reactions, the manifestation of which is possible from other individuals and groups. This should also be taken into account when selecting your own action option.
In the process of social interaction, symbols and signs that carry a certain meaning begin to play a significant role. They become means of communication for the actors. Thus, cultural symbolism also enters into the experience of social action.
That is why, in the terminology of Parsons theory, personality is an organized system of orientation of the individual. At the same time, along with motivation, those values that serve as constituent elements of the “cultural world” are also considered.
Interdependence
How is the system considered in the theory of T. Parsons? In his works, the scientist puts forward the idea that any of them, including the social one, is interdependent. In other words, if any changes occur in one of the parts of the system, then this will certainly affect it as a whole. General conceptinterdependence in Parsons' social theory is considered in two directions. Let's consider each of them in more detail.
Contributing Factors
What makes up the first of the two directions of interdependence in society? It represents those conditions that contribute to the formation of a hierarchy of conditioning factors. Among them:
- Physical conditions for the existence (life) of a person. Without them, it is impossible to conduct any activity.
- The existence of individuals. Justifying this factor, Parsons gives an example with aliens. If they exist within another solar system, then they are biologically different from humans, and, as a result, they lead a social life different from earthly.
- Psychophysical conditions. They stand on the third step of the hierarchy and are one of the necessary conditions for the existence of society.
- The system of social values and norms.
Controlling factors
In the theory of the social system of Parsons, the second direction of interdependence, which takes place in society, is also widely disclosed. It is represented by a hierarchy of management and control factors. Adhering to this direction, the consideration of society can be approached from the point of view of the interaction of two subsystems. Moreover, one of them contains energy, and the second - information. What are these subsystems? The first of them in the theory of action of T. Parsons is economics. After all, it is this side of social life that has a high energy potential. At the same time, the economy can be managed by people who are not involved in production.processes, but at the same time organizing other people.
And here the problem of ideology, norms and values that allow controlling society is of no small importance. A similar function is implemented in the control subsystem (sphere). But this raises another problem. It concerns unplanned and planned management. T. Parsons believed that in this case the leading role is played by political power. It is that generalizing process by which it is possible to control all other processes occurring in society. Thus, the government is the highest point of the cybernetic hierarchy.
Public subsystems
Parsons' systems theory highlights in society:
- Organization of political power. This institution is necessary to ensure control over what is happening on the territory of the state.
- Education and socialization of each person, starting from an early age, as well as exercising control over the population. This subsystem has gained particular importance at the present time in connection with the emerging problem of informational aggression and domination.
- The economic basis of society. It finds its expression in the organization of social production and in the distribution of its product among individuals and strata of the population, as well as in the optimal use of social resources, primarily human ones.
- The set of those cultural norms that are embodied in institutions. In a slightly different terminology, this subsystem is the maintenance of culturalinstitutional designs.
- Communication system.
Social evolution
How does Parsons' theory view the development of society? The scientist is of the opinion that social evolution is one of the elements of the development of living systems. In this regard, Parsons argues about the existence of a connection between the emergence of man, considered as a biological species, and the emergence of societies.
According to biologists, humans belong to only one species. That is why Parsons concludes that all communities have the same roots, while going through the following stages:
- Primitive. This type of community is characterized by the presence of homogeneity of its systems. Religious and family relations are the basis of social ties. Each of the members of such a society plays a role assigned to him by society, which, as a rule, depends on the sex and age of the individual.
- Advanced primitive. This society is already divided into political, religious and economic subsystems. The role of the individual in this increasingly depends on his success, which comes with luck or acquired skills.
- Intermediate. In such a society, a further process of differentiation takes place. It affects the systems of social action, necessitating their integration. There is writing. At the same time, literate people are separated from everyone else. Human values and ideals are freed from religiosity.
- Modern. This stage began in ancient Greece. AtThis resulted in a system characterized by social stratification based on the criterion of success, as well as the development of supportive, integrative, goal-directing and adaptive subsystems.
Prerequisites for the survival of society
In Parsons' theory of action, society is seen as an integral system. The scientist considers self-sufficiency, as well as the presence of a high level of self-sufficiency in relation to one's environment, to be its main criterion.
When considering the concept of society, Parsons gave an important place to certain functional prerequisites, to which he attributed:
- adaptation, that is, the ability to adapt to environmental influences;
- maintain order;
- purposefulness, expressed in the desire to achieve the set goals in relation to the environment;
- integration of individuals as active elements.
As for adaptation, Parsons made repeated statements about it, and in different contexts. In his opinion, it is the functional condition that any social system must meet. Only then will they be able to survive. The scientist believed that the need for adaptation of an industrial society is satisfied through the development of its specialized subsystem, which is the economy.
Adaptation is the way in which any social system (state, organization, family) is able to manage its environment.
To achieve integration or balancesocial system there is a centralized system of values.
When considering the prerequisites for the survival of society, Parsons developed the idea of M. Weber, who believed that the basis of order is the acceptance and approval by the majority of the population of those norms of behavior that are supported by effective state control.
Changing social systems
Such a process, according to Parsons, is multifaceted and rather complex. All factors influencing the change of the social system are independent of each other. And none of them can be considered as original. A change in one of the factors will certainly affect the state of all the others. If the changes are positive, then we can say that they indicate the ability of society to implement the set values.
Social processes occurring in this case can be of three types:
- Differentiation. A striking example of this type of social process is the transition from traditional peasant farming to industrial production that goes beyond the family. There was also differentiation in society during the separation of higher education from the church. In addition, a similar type of social process takes place in modern society. It is expressed in the emergence of new classes and strata of the population, as well as in the differentiation of professions.
- Adaptive reorganization. Any group of people should be able to adapt to new conditions. A similar process happened with the family. At one time, she had to adapt to new functions for her, dictated by the industrial society.
- Transformation of society. Sometimes society becomes more complex and differentiated. This happens due to the involvement of a wider range of social units. Thus, new elements appear in society with a simultaneous increase in internal ties. It is constantly becoming more complex, in connection with which it changes its quality level.
