A word in a language has a certain lexical meaning, which is revealed in a specific situation. Often words acquire one meaning or another only when they enter into grammatical and logical connections with other lexemes. These are stable combinations of words, where the latter, connecting with each other, form a new single meaning.
Lexical combination of words
In speech, words do not appear in isolation, but surrounded by other words with which they must be combined lexically, grammatically, logically. For example, the word flower requires agreement in number, gender and case, that is, the adjective or participle must be masculine, stand in the singular and in the nominative case: forest flower. If you use an adjective that is not suitable in meaning (cloudy flower), then the lexical compatibility of words is violated.
Stable combinations of words are an absolute connection, in which the replacement of components is not allowed. So, the combination of a sunbeam means "reflected sunbeam". If areplace one component of this combination, then it will lose its meaning (combinations sunny day, cowardly bunny no longer have the indicated meaning). In a word, the lexical compatibility of words in set expressions is absolute and traditional.
The semantic compatibility of words, that is, semantic, is genetically inherent in native speakers. Intuitively one feels the possibility of using the phrase apple orchard and the comic variant apple orchard.
Phraseologisms
There are many words that require specific components next to them. It happens that the reason for limiting the compatibility of a word lies in its attachment to a certain environment - these are stable combinations of words, they are called phraseological units in a different way. This is the term of the French linguist Charles Bally, meaning "phrase-word".
Linguists' discussions
The science that studies the structure and features of phraseological units is called phraseology. Linguists are discussing the issue of its volume. There are disagreements in the theoretical justification of phraseological units. In certain groups of linguists, any stable combinations of words that are fixed in the language are called in this way. Lexicographic observations make it possible to judge different approaches to this issue. Phraseologisms are considered to be only those stable combinations in which the meaning is not interpreted by describing the individual components.
Thus, idioms to sharpen frills or fly in the clouds cannot be explained by the description of each word. An indivisible, well-established combination is the meaning of such constructions.
Many linguists do not include sayings, aphorisms, clichés of speech as phraseological phrases. They believe that phraseological units (stable combinations of words) are those combinations that are equivalent to one word.
Vinogradov-Shansky classification
Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, an outstanding Russian linguist of world renown, described in detail stable combinations of words in the Russian language and classified them. In his works, phraseological units are divided into phraseological unions (actually idioms), phraseological units and phraseological combinations. Nikolai Maksimovich Shansky expanded Vinogradov's classification by highlighting a group of phraseological expressions.
Fusions
Collections are combinations, the semantics of which is clear only in a specific connection. The meaning of the idiom components separately is absolutely not visible.
The semantics of adhesions is uneven, miracles in a sieve, throwing a glove, beating the thumbs, at hand and others cannot be explained by the interpretation of each word. The meaning of idioms is derived from the traditionally established fusion. The formation of phraseological units is a long historical process taking place inspecific language.
The personification of the history of the language are stable combinations of words. Examples of such adhesions: headlong, get into a mess, how to drink to give. They are difficult to translate because they are not motivated by the meaning of each word. Splices cannot rearrange words or replace components.
Unity
Phraseological units, unlike fusions, consist of semantically motivated components. Their indivisible meaning is based on the metaphorical similarity of one of the words with the meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Phraseologism bury talent in the ground means "wasting your strength in vain", it is explained by a metaphor: bury in the ground - "hide, hide." Phraseological units are less idiomatic than fusions. Unity can be diluted in other words, sometimes one of the components can be replaced. For example, in a phraseological unit to call a spade a spade, the pronoun is sometimes replaced: call a spade a spade. Phraseological units are called idiomatic expressions.
Combinations
The semantics of phraseological combinations consists of the meanings of all components that make up a stable expression. At the same time, in combination there is both a free component and a bound one. The set of values of each of them reveals a single meaning of the expression. For example, the phraseological unit sworn enemy includes the attached word sworn and free enemy. Also in combinations bosom friend, delicate situation, biting frost, bare teeth and others.
Expressions
Phraseological words selected by N. M. Shanskyexpressions are phraseological units consisting of free words. There are no related items here. Often phraseological expressions are similar to cliches, proverbs, catchphrases and aphorisms.
For example, all ages are submissive to love, all the best, until we meet again, not a day without a line. In the process of speech, phraseological expressions are not invented by the speaker, but are issued from memory.
Phraseologisms in English
The rich fund of English phraseology, which for centuries has been replenished with numerous borrowings from Latin, German, French, Spanish, is of particular interest to linguists. Knowledge of the phraseology of a foreign language shows the level of the translator. The high qualification of such a specialist helps to avoid language misunderstanding.
Stable combinations of words in English can be divided according to the classification of VV Vinogradov. Phraseological fusions are the most difficult to translate, since the words included in its composition are connected. The semantics of such constructions follows from the general meaning.
For example, kick the bucket is not literally translated as kick and bucket. Here, the words, communicating with each other, give out a special meaning, which can be translated by the Russian phraseological unit stretch one's legs.
Phraseological units in English exist in parallel with homonymous free expressions. For example, to keep a dog and bark oneself likephraseological unit has the meaning "to do the work of a hired person." The translation of a homonymous free combination means "to have a dog that barks at the owner." The high expression of phraseological units is a feature of the English language.
Phraseological combinations allow the replacement of one of the components. These include words with a fixed meaning and free ones. Phraseologism to have a narrow escape, allowing the omission of the to have component, is translated by the Russian combination to be saved by a miracle. This group of phraseological units is the easiest to translate due to the inclusion of combinations from mythology, Holy Scripture (Sisyphean labor, Adam's apple, and Hilles' heel, Ariadne's thread, the apple of discord and others).
English proverbs, sayings without allegorical meaning are phraseological expressions. They consist of words with free meanings, but are traditionally reproducible: many men many mind is translated by Russian phraseological expression how many people, so many opinions.
Phraseological Fund
Phraseologisms by origin can be historical (original) and borrowed. Breaks are often stable combinations of words with negative pronouns, with archaisms and historicisms. For example, there is nothing to cover; just nothing; no one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten; by word of mouth; in the bosom of nature; one as a finger; to breed a cantle; not a bast.
Loanwords are considered to be such stable combinations of words,which entered the language in finished form, often without translation. The ways of borrowing phraseological units are different. Mythology, ancient literature, Holy Scripture, masterpieces of world literature bring stable combinations of words into the language. Examples of phraseological units taken from the Latin language: alma mater, fixed idea, tete-a-tete. The Bible gave such stable expressions as the prodigal son, the lamb of God, the wolf in sheep's clothing, wash your hands and many others. From works of fiction, expressions were transferred to the phraseological fund of the Russian language, but was there a boy? (M. Gorky), our smaller brothers (S. Yesenin), distribution of elephants (M. Zoshchenko).
Using idioms in speech
The speech of the speaker, who makes extensive use of phraseological expressions, sounds bright, beautiful and expressive. Phraseologisms emphasize a person's fluency in a word, show the level of his education. Knowledge of phraseology and the appropriate use of set expressions speaks of the perfection of language proficiency.
The ability of phraseological units to make speech more figurative and lively is appreciated by journalists, writers, politicians, diplomats and representatives of other professions related to communicative activity and speech impact. Writers often modify phraseological units, adding components to them, often epithets, which makes speech even more figurative and expressive. The meaning of stable combinations of words becomes ironic when replacing part of a stable turnover.
Contamination of phraseological units is used by publicists inheadings of articles, essays, complaints. The modified expressions are referred to a separate group of phraseological units - occasionalisms.
Phraseological dictionary
When using stable combinations of words, it is necessary to know their semantics exactly, take into account stylistic originality. Associative errors in the use of phraseological units, when the component is incorrectly called, replaced by a paronym or a word similar in sound (lose heart, at least scratch), speak of ignorance of the history of the language and the etymology of the language. Incorrect, inappropriate use of phraseological expressions radically changes the meaning of the statement, distorts it, makes it ridiculous (they sang their swan song, send school graduates on their last journey). Phraseological dictionaries help to avoid such mistakes. They give an interpretation of the phraseological unit, explain the origin, give synonymous words and expressions. Bilingual and multilingual editions provide an equivalent translation.
