One of the most ancient and important sciences for people is anatomy. And not only the one that concerns directly the person. The methods of studying the anatomy of plants and animals also made it possible to understand a lot about the structure of the world.
Thanks to this science and its development, improvement over time, people managed to get rid of many diseases, learned to save themselves from dangers, realized the importance of taking care of their he alth. Therefore, various methods of anatomy, physiology and hygiene are the key to understanding the processes in the body, its internal structure, without which it is impossible to positively influence and manage he alth, while maintaining it.
Anatomy: general concept, subject of study
What is anatomy as a science? This is a discipline that deals with the study of the external and internal structure of organisms. Various methods of anatomy allow you to understand the following.
- How organs are located in the body of an organism.
- How they are interconnected, what unites them and what is their significance for the whole being as a whole.
- What is their inside and outsidestructure, down to micro-ultrastructures.
- What organs should be in the norm, and how they change in diseases, from bad habits, external and internal influences of various kinds.
- What processes underlie life activity, and thanks to what systems and organs do living systems exist.
Of course, not only one anatomy is engaged in the study of all of the above. There is a whole complex of sciences related to it, which together make it possible to obtain complete information. The tasks of anatomy and physiology just come down to embracing the whole complex of knowledge about the living, about its structure and functioning, as well as to understand the mental and psychosomatic processes occurring in the human central nervous system.
The object of study of anatomy is a specific representative of wildlife. It could be:
- man;
- animal;
- plant;
- bacteria;
- mushrooms.
We will dwell in more detail on the consideration of such a creature as a person from the point of view of the designated discipline.
Problems of anatomy as a science
There are several main tasks that this discipline performs.
- Studies not only the internal and external structure of each organism, but also correlates the processes occurring in it with age and historical changes over time.
- Studies the phylogenesis, ontogenesis and anthropogenesis of his object.
- Examines the relationship between the structure and functioning of organs and organ systems among themselves.
- Gives an assessment of the overall conditionorganism, its constitution, body parts and organs.
Thus, the tasks of human anatomy cover the whole complex of necessary knowledge. To solve the above problems, like any other sciences, the discipline we are considering also has its secrets. Methods for studying anatomy are quite diverse, and they have been formed for a long time. The choice was dictated by the need for knowledge of the deep mechanisms of the human body.
Classification
There are several main sections that make up the science in question.
- Normal anatomy.
- Pathological.
- Comparative.
- Topographic.
Each of them has its own methods of studying anatomy, as well as general ones, with the help of which various parameters are studied. Together, these disciplines give a complete description of the structure of the object of study, as well as its functioning and development over time.
Methods of studying anatomy
There is a wide variety of different options for research in the field of anatomy, physiology and related sciences. After all, a person managed to look into the deepest essence, to see and study the microstructures of his body. The most important methods of studying anatomy are as follows.
- Injection.
- Corrosive method.
- The enlightenment method.
- Ice anatomy, or cutting frozen corpses.
- Vorobiev's method, or micro-macroscopic.
- X-ray.
- Computed tomography.
Each of them includes a number of even more subtle and precise research methods. Taken together, all of the above methods of anatomy give the result that physicians, anatomists, physiologists and other scientists in the field of human research have. Consider these ways of studying anatomy in more detail.
Injection-corrosion method
This method is widely used by anatomy. Human research methods based on the introduction of special hardening or colored substances into even the thinnest capillary formations, which allow the system of blood and lymphatic vessels to be examined with the naked eye. In this case, substances can be of a different nature, for example:
- gypsum;
- gelatin;
- wax;
- rosin;
- celluloid and others.
Most often, the masses are stained with different colors and get an accurate image of the organ from the inside. Thanks to this, a picture becomes available to scientists, reflecting the order of interaction between certain vessels and capillaries.
Also, if necessary, anatomical methods such as injections can provide material for making an accurate organ model. To do this, the colored hardening mass is introduced into the vessel and waiting for solidification. After that, they act with a certain substance that can destroy living tissues around, but does not affect the mass of the injected substance (for example, strong alkalis or acids). This is how the dissolution of the organ occurs, and only its cast remains, which has a high degree ofaccuracy in reflecting its internal structure.
In addition to corrosive destruction under the action of strong oxidizing agents, other substances are often used that can cause enlightenment of certain organs. These substances include:
- glycerin;
- benzene;
- cedar oil;
- benzyl benzoate;
- isozafrole and others.
That is, the tissues around the injected mass simply become transparent, very much lighter. It also allows obtaining information about the structure and functioning of the vessel.
Injection is rightfully considered one of the most accurate methods of anatomy. It is used most often in combination with subsequent treatments. So, with the introduction of a mass that does not transmit gamma radiation, the body is further subject to examination using X-rays. This is how a high-quality image of the organ is obtained, its integrity, the relationship with other structures is established.
After injection, there comes a moment when it is required to introduce a potent substance that can destroy, cause corrosion of living tissues around the frozen mass of the drug. This is done to obtain a qualitative model of the structure of the organ. In this way, it is possible to extract an exact copy of the former body part from the body, and the image will be as realistic as possible and transmitted with the smallest details.
Injection-corrosion methods of human anatomy were first used by the scientist F. Ruysch. In Russia, anatomists began to apply this method somewhat later. Among the most famous domestic names that gave rise and developmentthis direction, sound the following:
- P. F. Lesgaft;
- B. M. Shumlyansky;
- I. V. Buyalsky.
The preparations created by their efforts are still used as educational and scientific aids and are stored in the anatomical museum.
The tasks and methods of anatomy are closely related to each other. After all, it is what is required to be known that determines the means of achieving it. To look inside all organs, to find out what their morpho-topographic characteristics are, to identify the features of interaction with other parts of the body - this is one of the tasks of the science in question.
The corrosive method allows us to solve it quite successfully. You can get accurate models that reflect the structure:
- hollow organs (heart, ventricles of the brain);
- parenchymal organs (kidneys, liver);
- vessels of the macro- and microcirculation;
- prostate.
Of particular importance is the penetration into the vessels and capillaries, because with the help of other methods it is impossible. Currently, the most popular material for injection has become silicone, which takes a long time to harden, but is less toxic than others and does not shrink. Thus, not only the structure is reflected, but also the actual dimensions of the organ under study.
Enlightenment method
This is one of the most interesting ways to learn anatomy. Its essence is as follows. An organ or part of the body is impregnated with special acidic solutions that allow it tobind water and swell, turning into a jelly-like mass. In this case, the refractive index of the solvent and the organ become equal to each other, the part of the body becomes transparent.
Thus, a high-quality image of the internal environment of the body is obtained through transparent tissues without their destruction, as, for example, with a corrosive method. Most often, this method is used in the study of the nervous system, its parts and organs.
What allows you to see and define this way of research?
- Topography of the location of organs in the body.
- Anatomical features of the whole organism or its individual parts.
- The relationship of organs in the body.
Obviously, this method has its advantages over the previously considered corrosion method.
Ice Anatomy
The tasks of human anatomy and physiology are reduced to a detailed study of not only the structure, location, but also the functioning of a particular organ and the organism as a whole. And this requires obtaining such an image or creating a model that would fully reflect the true behavior of a body part in a living organism.
But it is impossible to subject a living person to full anatomical studies. Work at all times had to with corpses. Atmospheric pressure, mechanical deformation and other factors led to a change in the location of the organ after the opening of the corpse, to its morphological and physiological changes. Therefore, for a long time it was not possible to get a reliable picture.
Thisthe problem was solved by Academician N. I. Pirogov. He proposed a method of sawing frozen corpses. To do this, the human corpse is preliminarily fixed, processed and heavily frozen. Moreover, this is done as soon as possible after the onset of death, so that the body does not lose its intravital topography of organs.
After this procedure, the ice corpse is the perfect material to work with. You can make cuts in different directions of any parts of the body and get absolutely accurate real images. This method of research has advanced surgery far.
The same scientist proposed the so-called ice sculpture. Its creation consists in removing integuments and underlying tissues in layers from a heavily frozen body up to the required organ. Thus, realistic three-dimensional images are obtained, on the basis of which it is quite possible to judge the topography, the relative position and the relationship of all parts of the body to each other.
X-ray and tomography
The most modern methods of anatomy research are associated with the use of computer and electronic technologies, and are also closely based on the use of electromagnetic radiation. The most important of them are:
- tomography (magnetic resonance, computer);
- radiography.
Tomography is a modern method that completely replaces the Pirogov method. Thanks to magnetic resonance or X-rays, it is possible to obtain a three-dimensional image of any human organ that is in a living state. That is, thanks to thisthe modern method eliminated the need to conduct research on cadavers.
Computed tomography is the use of x-rays. The method was invented in 1972 by American scientists, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize. The bottom line is the transmittance of tissues to x-rays. Since they themselves differ in density, the absorption proceeds to an unequal extent. This makes possible a layer-by-layer detailed study of the internal part of the organ.
The received data is loaded into a computer, where they are very complex processing, calculations based on measurements, and the result is displayed. Such studies are necessary for the following medical indications:
- before operations;
- for severe injuries;
- brain hemorrhage;
- lung cancer;
- fainting;
- unreasonable dizziness;
- damage to blood vessels and organs;
- puncture procedure and others.
Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the emission of certain electromagnetic waves in a constant magnetic field. In this case, the excitation of the nuclei of atoms is caused, their electromagnetic response is measured, and conclusions are drawn based on the indicators. Using this method, the brain, spine, blood vessels and other structures are examined.
X-ray methods of anatomy are based on the use of gamma radiation, which has unequal permeability for different tissues. In this case, the reflection of the rays is fixed on special paper orfilm, so it produces an image of the desired organ. Explore in these ways:
- spine;
- abdominal organs;
- light;
- vessels;
- skeleton;
- tumor diseases;
- teeth;
- mammary glands and other organs and parts of the body.
The considered modern methods of human anatomy are universal for all living beings and are also used in veterinary medicine. However, each of them has a number of contraindications, which are explained by the individual characteristics of each creature, its diseases and general he alth.
Pathological Anatomy
The subject matter and methods of anatomy must be very harmonious with each other so that people can get the most reliable result. Therefore, almost every section of anatomy has its own set of specific ways to study a person.
Thus, pathological anatomy is such a discipline that is able to identify and study, find methods to combat pathologies, diseases at the micro level, that is, at the stage of their cellular development. The same science deals with establishing the cause of death. For research in the field of microstructures - cells, tissues, intracellular changes, different methods of pathological anatomy are used.
These include the following varieties.
- Autopsy - in other words, this is an autopsy of a person's body after his death to establish its cause. Produced by her pathologist. He takes samples from the body for research, which is carried out inlaboratories. Based on the data obtained, the doctor writes a conclusion on the causes of death and morphophysiological changes that have been recorded. Most often, this verdict coincides with the clinical one, which is put by the attending physician. However, there are also disagreements that are considered at general anatomical and medical conferences.
- Biopsy. These methods include visual studies of living samples taken from humans, as well as the collection of material from internal organs (puncture). The difference from the previous method lies precisely in the fact that research is carried out on the basis of a living organism.
- Immunohistochemical methods are a study of deep processes inside the cell, its protein composition, belonging to a particular type of tissue. These methods are very important for modern cancer diagnostics.
- Electron microscopy - the use of equipment of very high resolution, which allows you to study even the ultramicrostructures of any organ and cell.
- Hybridization in place. This method is based on working with the detection of nucleic acids. In this way, information is obtained about pathological processes that are latent or hidden. Diagnosed with hepatitis, AIDS, herpes virus and other ailments.
In general, pathological anatomy data are very important for the development of medical knowledge about the structure and development of a person.
CNS Anatomy
The tasks of the anatomy of the central nervous system are reduced to a complete and in-depth study of the structure of nerve cells,tissues, organs and the system as a whole. It also studies not only the historical, but also the individual development of the nervous system with age. The brain is considered as a substrate for the implementation of all mental functions.
Since all issues related to the structure and functioning of the system under consideration are very important and need to be considered in detail, the methods of CNS anatomy are also quite complex and specific. There are two options for research in this area.
- Microscopic. They are based on the use of special equipment that makes it possible to obtain a multiply enlarged image of an organ (its part). So, they distinguish optical microscopy - the study of sections of nervous tissue, electronic - the study of cellular structures, molecules, substances that form the outer sphere of an object.
- Macroscopic. There are several intravital and post-mortem options for the study. Lifetime includes:
- radiography;
- computed tomography;
- magnetic resonance;
- positron emission;
- electroencephalography.
Post-death methods include:
- anatomy;
- injection and corrosion;
- radiography.
All of the above methods of studying the anatomy of the central nervous system have been discussed above. EEG (electroencephalography) and positron emission tomography are highly specific for this system. The first is based on the registration with the help of an encephalograph of special biorhythms of brain cells.brain (alpha and beta rhythms), on the basis of which a conclusion is made about the functioning and number of living cells. A study is being carried out through intact integuments of the brain on a living person. In general, the procedure is completely safe, however, there are some contraindications.
