The process of ontogenesis is determined by successive changes in the body from the lower levels of life to the highest. There is a structural and functional improvement of the individual.
Ontogeny studies are carried out within several scientific disciplines. So, for example, morphophysiological ontogeny (the formation of an organism) is an object of study in biological science. In turn, mental and social ontogeny is studied in various areas of psychology (psychogenetics, developmental and child psychology, social and educational psychology).
The concepts of phylo- and ontogeny
The term "phylogeny" (Greek "phyle" - "species, genus, tribe", and "genos" - "origin") is used to denote the process of origin and historical development of a species. In psychological science, this is the development of the psyche of animals in the process of evolution, as well as the evolution of forms of human consciousness.
The concept of "ontogeny" has a more particular meaning. This is (in psychology) the process of development of the psyche of the individual. At the same time, we are talking about the permanent nature of development - from the birth of a person tothe moment of his death. Psychological science borrows the concepts of phylo- and ontogenesis from biology, their author is the German biologist E. Haeckel.
Biogenetic law
Based on these concepts, together with F. Müller, Haeckel formulates the biogenetic law (1866). According to him, each individual in the process of individual development (ontogenesis) in a short form goes through all the stages of development of its species (phylogenesis).
Subsequently, the biogenetic law was seriously criticized by the scientific community. So, for example, as a counterargument, the Academic Council of the University of Jena points to the fact that the human embryo lacks a tail and gill slits. Despite the support of the biogenetic law by Charles Darwin (who declared it the main proof of his evolutionary theory), the idea was regarded by the Scientific Council as untenable, and its author was accused of scientific fraud.
Nevertheless, the biogenetic law and the actual idea of recapitulation (lat. "recapitalatio" - "concise, brief repetition of the former") had a significant impact on the development of biological science, including the development of evolutionary ideas. The biogenetic law also had its influence on the development of psychology. In the ontogeny of the individual's psyche, the experience of previous generations cannot but play a role.
The problem of the driving forces of mental development
A separate fundamental psychological problem is the question of what factors are leading inthe process of development of the psyche, causing its ontogenesis. This is defined in psychology by the concept of the driving forces of mental development. There are two main approaches to solving this problem - biogenetic (natural) and sociogenetic (public).
Proponents of the first direction focused on the genetic factor (heredity), considering it the leading factor in the process of individual development of the psyche. Accordingly, the role of the social factor was minimized. Among the most famous representatives of the biogenetic approach are R. Descartes, Zh-Zh. Russo, G. Spencer, S. Hall, D. Baldwin.
The opposite, sociogenetic approach singled out the social factor as the driving forces of mental development - the role of the social environment. Man, thus, acts as a product of external (mediated) influence. The significance of the heredity of the individual was ignored by the proponents of this approach. Representatives - J. Locke, E. Durkheim, P. Janet.
Two-factor theory of the ontogeny of the psyche
Also, attempts were made to combine both factors - hereditary and social - to explain the mental specificity of the concept of "ontogeny". This in psychology resulted in the third direction - the theory of two factors. The first researcher was V. Stern, who formulated the principle of convergence of two factors. According to this principle, the hereditary line in the development of the personality intersects with the line determined by its social environment (convergence occurs).
Accordingly, the ontogenesis of human psychology is carried out in the processfusion of internal and external conditions for the functioning of the psyche. For example, the innate instinct to play will determine how and when a child will play. In turn, the material and process conditions will be determined by the actual external environment.
Special methods were needed to identify the specifics of the ratio of external and internal factors that determine ontogeny. In developmental psychology, this is the twin method.
Important details
The twin method was based on a comparative analysis of the mental development of mono- and dizygotic twins. It was assumed that if dizygotic twins (DZ - different heredity) in equal social conditions develop differently, therefore, the genetic factor is decisive. If development is approximately at the same qualitative level, the main factor is the social factor. With monozygotic twins (MS - the same heredity), the situation is similar. Subsequently, the coefficients of differences between DZ and MZ twins living in different/same conditions are compared. The twin method is actively used in psychogenetics.
Thus, the psychology of personality development in ontogenesis, according to the theory of convergence, is determined by two axes:
- X-elements of heredity.
- Y-elements of the environment.
For example, the famous British psychologist G. Eysenck considered intelligence as a derivative of the external environment by 80%, and internal (hereditary) - only by20%.
The disadvantage of the two-factor theory of personality development is its limitations, resulting from the mechanical addition of hereditary and social indicators. In turn, ontogeny is (in psychology) a more complex process, not reducible only to mathematical calculations. It is important to take into account not only their quantitative ratio, but also qualitative specifics. In addition, in such patterns there is always room for individual differences.
Psychoanalytic approach to the concept of "ontogenesis" in psychology
What is it - ontogeny - from the point of view of psychoanalysis? If in the previous theory we observed the convergence (convergence) of the axes of hereditary and social elements, then in the theory of Z. Freud, the opposite process occurs. These factors are considered from the standpoint of confrontation, the source of which is the discrepancy between the aspirations of the natural, instinctive component of the personality ("Id", "It" - the unconscious) and the social ("Super-Ego", "Super-I" - conscience, moral norms).
When an individual is driven by hidden drives and desires, this is a manifestation of his natural, unconscious structure. An attempt to control these aspirations, rejection of them, condemnation, attempts to force them out of memory is the work of the social component of the personality (an internalized system of values, norms and rules of behavior, formed by the individual under the influence of the social environment).
This theory has also been repeatedly criticized by the scientific community, primarily for the sharp opposition of biological and socialcomponents of the human personality.
Analytical concept of K. G. Jung
Returning to the idea of recapitulation (the biogenetic law) discussed above, we can note similar points in the analytical psychology of the Swiss psychologist K. G. Cabin boy. This is the theory of the collective unconscious. Just as E. Haeckel saw a brief repetition of phylogenesis in ontogenesis, Jung considers the individual as a bearer of the mental experience of previous generations.
This experience manifests itself in a compressed form in the form of some patterns of perception and comprehension of reality - archetypes. The blocking of the latter and the absence of their exit into the sphere of consciousness negatively affects the process of ontogenesis, causes a violation of the mental balance of the individual.
Ontogeny and activity
The introduction of the category of activity, according to the domestic psychologist D. B. Elkonin, allows to some extent to solve the problem of identifying the dominant factors in the ontogeny of the psyche. The process of development is, first of all, the activity of the subject himself, due to his objective activity.
As for hereditary and social factors, they act as conditions for development, but not as its dominant. They do not determine the process of development of the psyche, but only its variations within the normal range.
