One of the most exciting plots in the history of the ancient world is the crisis of the republic and the transition to empire in Rome. How dramatic this process was is evidenced by many written sources that have come down to us, which tell about the civil wars that swept the republic, accusatory speeches of speakers and mass executions. The history of the empire itself is also rich in events: being the strongest state in the Mediterranean at the beginning of its existence, it, having gone through several difficult crises, fell as a result of the onslaught of the Germanic tribes at the end of the 5th century.
Last Days of the Republic
Everyone has known about the major events leading up to the establishment of the empire in Rome since the 5th grade of high school. Once upon a time, the citizens of Rome expelled Tsar Tarquinius the Proud and decided that the power in the city would never belong to one person. Power was exercised by two annually elected consuls and the Roman Senate. Under the republican system, Rome has come a long way from a relatively small city on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula to the center of a major power,conquered almost the entire Mediterranean. However, the vast territory gave rise to serious problems, which the republican authorities were no longer able to cope with. One such problem was the dispossession of small proprietors. Attempts by the Gracchi brothers to resolve this issue in the second half of the 2nd century. BC e. failed, and the reformers themselves were killed.
One of the consequences of the political struggle during the years of the Gracchi was civil wars. They are characterized by a fierceness never seen before, and the Romans themselves stubbornly exterminated each other. The coming to power of one or another dictator - Marius, Sulla, Caesar - was accompanied by the publication of proscription lists. A person who got there was considered an enemy of Rome and could be killed without trial or investigation.
However, not everyone said goodbye to the Republican ideals. Under the slogan of restoring the old order, the senatorial elite organized a conspiracy against Julius Caesar. And although the dictator for life (in fact, the first monarch after Tarquinius) was killed, the crisis of the republic was irreversible. The last of the civil wars ended with the victory of Octavian Augustus, who declared himself princeps.
Early days of empire
The establishment of the empire in Rome, according to the bloodthirsty tradition, was accompanied by new proscriptions. One of the most famous victims was the orator Cicero - a true republican and opponent of any form of dictatorship. But once at the pinnacle of power, Octavian took into account the mistakes of his predecessors. First of all, he retained the formal attributes of the republic - the senate and the popular assembly; consuls are still elected andother officials.
But that was just a facade. In fact, Octavian concentrated all power in his hands. He formed the senate at his own discretion, replacing objectionable loyal people, canceled the decrees of any official, using the right of absolute veto that belonged to the tribunes of the people before. Finally, Octavian led the armed forces.
At the same time, he avoided pompous titles. If Caesar hastened to call himself consul, and praetor, and emperor, then Octavian was satisfied with the title of princeps, that is, the first senator. From this point of view, the more correct term for the established regime in Rome is "principate". The title of emperor was historically given to commanders for military merit. Only over time did the title of emperor become associated with the bearer of supreme power.
The Julio-Claudian dynasty
Monarchical power is most often associated with its inheritance. However, there were serious difficulties with this issue. The princeps had no sons, and the men Octavian saw as his successors predeceased him. As a result, the first Roman emperor chose the stepson of Tiberius. To strengthen the relationship, Octavian married the heir to his daughter.
Tiberius became the continuation of the first dynasty of the empire of Rome - Julio-Claudian (27 BC - 68 AD). However, this term is controversial. Relations between emperors were based on adoptions and marriages. Consanguinity was rather an exception in Rome. The Roman Empire wasunique also because there was no legal consolidation of sole power and the mechanism of its inheritance. In fact, under favorable circumstances, the supreme power in the principate could have gone to anyone.
First Emperors
Ancient Roman historians not without pleasure report on the moral baseness of Octavian's successors. The work of Suetonius "The Life of the Twelve Caesars" is replete with reports of brutal murders of the closest relatives, conspiracies and betrayals, sexual debauchery of the rulers of Rome. The heyday of the empire, therefore, appears to be a process that has nothing to do with the activities of the emperors.
It should be borne in mind that ancient historians, often contemporaries of the events they describe, did not particularly strive for objectivity. Their work is based on rumors and speculation, so every evidence must be verified. If we turn to the facts, it turns out that under the emperors from the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Rome finally consolidated its hegemony in the Mediterranean. The government of Tiberius passed a number of important laws, thanks to which it was possible to establish effective administration of the provinces, stabilize the flow of taxes to the treasury and strengthen the economy.
The reign of Caligula (37-41), at first glance, did not bring anything good. The favorite horse of the emperor was appointed a senator, he replenished the treasury with the property of state aristocrats, and then spent it on arranging not too pious festivities. However, this can be seen as a manifestationstruggle with the still existing supporters of the republic. But Caligula's methods were not approved, and as a result of the conspiracy, the emperor was killed.
Degeneration of a dynasty
"Uncle" Claudius, the object of Caligula's numerous mockeries, was declared emperor after the death of his nephew. Under him, the power of the Senate was again limited, and the territory of the empire of Rome increased due to conquests in Britain. At the same time, the attitude towards Claudius in society was contradictory. He was considered crazy at best.
After Claudius, Nero became emperor, the only property of the fourteen years of whose reign was the famous phrase: "What artist dies." Under Nero, the economy of Rome fell into decline, and social contradictions intensified. Christian doctrine became especially popular, and in order to cope with it, Nero declared the Christians in the burning of Rome. Many adherents of the new religion died in the amphitheatres.
Civil War 68-69
As once Caligula, Nero turned against himself all sectors of society. The Senate declared the emperor an enemy of the people, and he had to flee. Convinced of the futility of resistance, Nero ordered his slave to kill himself. The Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.
The first civil war broke out in the Roman Empire. The presence of numerous applicants put forward in various provinces by legions led to the fact that the year 69 went down in history as the year of the four emperors. Three of them - Galba, Otho and Vitelius - could not hold on to power. And ifOtho, faced with opposition to his power, committed suicide, then other applicants had it worse. Galba was publicly torn to pieces by the Praetorian Guard, and the head of the emperor was carried around the streets of Rome for several days.
Such a fierce struggle would later become commonplace for the Roman Empire. In 69, a protracted struggle was still avoided. The winner was Vespasian, who founded the Flavian dynasty (69-96).
Flavian reign
Vespasian and his successors managed to stabilize the situation in the country. After the reign of Nero and the civil war, the treasury was empty, and the administration of the provinces fell into decay. To remedy the situation, Vespasian did not disdain any means. His most famous way to raise funds is to impose a tax on the use of public toilets. To his son's criticism of this, Vespasian replied: "Money doesn't smell."
Under the Flavius, it was possible to put an end to the centrifugal tendencies that engulfed the provinces. In particular, the uprising in Judea was suppressed, and the temple of the Jews was destroyed. But these successes actually led to the death of the dynasty.
Domitian (81-96), the last representative of the dynasty, found it possible to return to the style of government of the last Julio-Claudians. Under him, an attack began on the prerogatives of the Senate, and the princeps added the words "lord and god" to his title. Large-scale buildings (for example, the Arch of Titus) depleted the treasury, discontent began to accumulate in the provinces. As a result, a conspiracy developed, and Domitian was killed. The Senate nominated Mark Koktsey as a successorNerva, founder of the Antonine dynasty (96-192).
The transition of power was without internal upheaval. Society reacted to the death of Domitian indifferently: the violent killing of princeps from the very establishment of the empire in Rome became a kind of norm. The lack of prerequisites for another civil war allowed the new emperor and his successor Trajan to pursue the necessary policy in an atmosphere of stability.
The "golden age" of the Roman Empire
Historians once called Trajan the best of emperors. This is not surprising: it was during his reign that the empire of Ancient Rome flourished. Unlike his predecessors, who tried to keep the territories they already had, Trajan switched to an offensive policy for the last time. Under him, the supremacy of Rome was recognized by the Dacians, who lived on the territory of modern Romania. In memory of the victory over a serious opponent, Trajan erected a column that has survived to this day. After that, the emperor faced another enemy that had been causing serious trouble for Rome for many years - the Parthian kingdom. The famous commander of the late republic, the winner of Spartacus, Crassus was never able to conquer Parthia. Octavian's attempts also ended in failure. Trajan managed to put an end to the age-old struggle.
Under Trajan, the highest point of Rome's power was reached. The heyday of the empire under his successors was based on the strengthening of the outer borders. Hadrian erected limes in the north - fortifications that prevent the penetration of barbarians). At the same time, some phenomena can already be observed,which will form the basis of the subsequent crisis: the provinces are becoming increasingly important. In addition, the demographic crisis is engulfing the empire, so the proportion of barbarians in the legions is increasing.
Crisis of the 3rd century
The last outstanding emperor of the Antonine dynasty Marcus Aurelius (161-180) died of the plague during a campaign against the barbarians. His son Commodus was nothing like his great ancestors. He spent all his time in the amphitheater, transferring control of the country to favorites. The result of this was a new explosion of social discontent, a conspiracy and the death of the emperor. With the death of the last Antoninus, the centuries-old heyday of the empire of Rome ceased. The fall of the state has become a reality.
The Empire was overwhelmed by a severe crisis. The Sever dynasty that came to power tried in vain to fight centrifugal tendencies. But the economic independence of the provinces, the constant presence of legions in them, led to the fact that Rome, the capital of the empire, was losing its importance, and control over it did not mean control over the country. The edict of Caracalla in 212 on the granting of citizenship to all the inhabitants of the empire did not alleviate the situation. From 214 to 284 Rome was ruled by 37 emperors, and there were times when they ruled simultaneously. Since they were nominees from the legions, they were called soldiers.
Dominat
The crisis ended with the coming to power of Diocletian (284-305). The fall of the empire of ancient Rome, which seemed inevitable, did not happen, but the price of this was the establishment of a regime reminiscent of oriental despotism. Diocletian did not take the titleprinceps, instead he became the dominus - the master. The surviving Republican institutions were finally abolished.
The civil wars have shown that it is no longer possible to rule the empire from Rome. Diocletian divided it among the three co-rulers, leaving behind the supreme power. In order to consolidate society, a religious reform was undertaken that established an official polytheistic cult. Other religions were banned, and their adherents, especially Christians, were severely persecuted. Diocletian's successor Constantine (306-337) took a decisive turn in this regard, declaring Christianity the state religion.
Death of the Roman Empire
Reforms of Diocletian for some time delayed the fall of the empire of Ancient Rome. A flourishing like that under the Antonines was not to be expected. The aggressive policy was finally replaced by a defensive one, but the empire could no longer stop the penetration of barbarians into its territory. Increasingly, the authorities are forced to give the Germanic tribes the status of federates, that is, to give them land for service in the Roman legions. The already insignificant funds in the treasury had to be farmed out from the most aggressive German leaders.
The division of the empire into Western and Eastern finally took shape, and the latter was not always in a hurry to help Western emperors. In 410 a Germanic tribe, the Goths, entered Rome. "Eternal City" for the first time in its history was captured by enemies. And although this did not lead to the elimination of the Romanstatehood, she could not recover from this blow.
The fall of the Roman Empire was becoming inevitable. The emperor became a nominal figure with no real power; barbarians ruled in the provinces. The territory of the state was rapidly decreasing. In the era of the empire, Rome reached extraordinary power, but its fall was surprisingly mundane. On September 4, 476, Odoacer, one of the German leaders, stormed Ravenna, where the young emperor Romulus Augustulus was. The boy was deposed, and Odoacer sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople, the eastern emperor. According to established tradition, this year is considered the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the end of the era of the Ancient World.
In fact, this boundary is conditional. The Roman Empire as an independent power has not existed since the invasion of the Goths in Rome. The fall of the empire dragged on for half a century, but even then only because its existence seemed to be a kind of necessity. When this imaginary necessity also disappeared, they got rid of the empire in one movement.
