From the English language, the word attitude came to us, which translates as "attitude". The concept of "attitude" in political sociology means a person's readiness to perform any specific action. A synonym for this word is “installation.”
What is an attitude?
Under the social setting is understood the specific image of various actions that an individual implements or is going to implement in a particular situation. That is, under the attitude one can understand the inclination (predisposition) of the subject to a certain social behavior. This phenomenon has a complex structure, which includes many components. Among them is the predisposition of the individual to perceive and evaluate, realize and ultimately act in a certain way with respect to some social subject.
And how does official science interpret this concept? In social psychology, the term "social attitude" is used in relation to a certain disposition of a person, organizing his feelings, thoughts and possible actions, taking into account the existing object.
Underattitude is also understood as a special type of belief that characterizes an assessment of a particular object that has already developed in an individual.
When considering this concept, it is important to understand the differences between the terms “attitude” and “social attitude”. The last of them is considered the state of consciousness of the individual, while functioning at the level of social relations.
Attitude is considered a kind of hypothetical constructor. Being unobservable, it is determined based on the measured reactions of the individual, reflecting the negative or positive assessments of the considered object of society.
Study history
The concept of "attitude" was first introduced by sociologists W. Thomas and F. Znatsky in 1918. These scientists considered the problems of adaptation of peasants who emigrated from Poland to America. As a result of their research, the work saw the light, in which attitude was defined as a state of consciousness of an individual regarding a certain social value, as well as an individual's experience of the meaning of such a value.
The story of the unexpected direction did not end there. In the future, attitude research was continued. Moreover, they can be divided into several stages.
Research booming
The first stage in the study of social attitudes lasted from the beginning of the introduction of the term until the Second World War. During this period, the popularity of the problem and the number of studies on it experienced its rapid growth. It was a time of numerous discussions, in which they argued about the content of this concept. Scientists have sought to develop waysthat would allow it to be measured.
The concept introduced by G. Opport has become widespread. This researcher was actively involved in the development of assessment procedures for antipodes. These were the 20-30s. of the last century, when scientists had only questionnaires. G. Opport created his own scale. In addition, he introduced an expert procedure.
Own scales with different intervals were developed by L. Thurstoin. These devices served to measure the negative or positive tension of those relations that a person has in relation to a certain phenomenon, object or social problem.
Then R. Likert's scales appeared. They were intended to measure social attitudes in society, but did not include expert assessments.
Already in the 30-40s. attitude began to be explored as a function of the structure of a person's interpersonal relationships. At the same time, the ideas of J. Mead were actively used. This scientist expressed the opinion that the formation of social attitudes in a person occurs due to the acceptance of the attitudes of the people around him.
Declining interest
The second stage in the study of the concept of "social attitude" lasted from 1940 to the 1950s. At this time, the study of attitude began to wane. This happened in connection with some discovered difficulties, as well as dead-end positions. That is why the interest of scientists switched to the dynamics in the field of group processes - a direction that was stimulatedideas of K. Levin.
Despite the recession, scientists continued to study the structural components of the social attitude. Thus, the formulation of the multicomponent approach to the antipode was proposed by M. Smith, R. Cruchfield and D. Krech. In addition, in the concept that considers the social attitudes of the individual, the researchers identified three components. Among them are such as:
- affective, which is an assessment of the object and the feelings that have arisen towards it;
- cognitive, which is a reaction or belief, which reflects the perception of the object of society, as well as a person's knowledge about it;
- conative, or behavioral, indicating intentions, tendencies and actions in relation to a particular object.
Most social psychologists view attitude as an evaluation or effect. But some experts believed that it included all three reactions listed above.
Revival of interest
The third stage of studying people's social attitudes lasted from the 1950s to the 1960s. At this time, interest in the issue received its second birth. Scientists have a number of new alternative ideas. However, this period is also characterized by the discovery of signs of a crisis in ongoing research.
The greatest interest in these years was the problem associated with changing social attitudes, as well as the connection of its elements with each other. During this period, functional theories developed by Smith together with D. Katz and Kelman arose. McGuire and Sarnova hypothesized about changesinstallation. At the same time, scientists improved the scaling technique. In order to measure the social attitudes of the individual, scientists began to apply psychophysical methods. The third stage also includes a number of studies carried out by the school of K. Hovland. Their main goal was to study the relationship between effective and cognitive elements of attitude.
In 1957, L. Fostinger put forward the theory of cognitive dissonance. After that, active studies of this type of bonds in various settings began.
Stagnation
The fourth stage of research on attitude falls on the 1970s. At this time, this direction was abandoned by scientists. The apparent stagnation was associated with a large number of contradictions, as well as the available incomparable facts. It was a time of reflection on the mistakes that took place throughout the entire period of the study of attitude. The fourth stage is characterized by the creation of many "mini-theories". With their help, scientists tried to explain the accumulated material that was already available on this issue.
Study continues
Research on the problem of attitude resumed again in the 1980s and 1990s. At the same time, scientists have increased interest in systems of social attitudes. They began to be understood as such complex formations that include the most significant reactions that arise on the object of society. The revival of interest at this stage was due to the needs of various practical areas.
In addition to studying the systems of social attitudes, interest in the issues of the problem has steadily begun to growchanges in attitudes, as well as their role in the processing of incoming data. In the 80s, several cognitive models by J. Capoccio, R. Petty and S. Chaiken were created, which relate to the field of persuasive communication. It was especially interesting for scientists to understand how the social attitude and human behavior are related.
Main Functions
The scientists' measurements of attitude were based on verbal self-report. In this regard, ambiguities arose with the definition of what is the social attitudes of the individual. Maybe this is an opinion or knowledge, belief, etc. The development of methodological tools gave impetus to stimulate further theoretical research. Its researchers carried out in such areas as determining the function of a social attitude, as well as explaining its structure.
It was clear that an attitude is necessary for a person to satisfy some of his important needs. However, it was necessary to establish their exact list. This led to the discovery of the functions of attitudes. There are only four of them:
- Adaptive. Sometimes it is called adaptive or utilitarian. In this case, the social attitude directs the individual to the objects he needs to achieve his goals.
- Knowledge. This social setting function is used to give simplified instructions on the behavior that will be applicable to a particular object.
- Expressions. This function of social attitude is sometimes called the function of self-regulation or value. In this case, attitude acts asmeans of liberation of the individual from internal tension. It also contributes to the expression of oneself as a person.
- Protection. This function of attitude is designed to resolve the internal conflicts of the personality.
Structure
How can a social attitude perform such complex functions listed above? They are performed by her due to the possession of a complex internal system
In 1942, the scientist M. Smith proposed a three-component structure of the social attitude. It includes three elements: cognitive (representations, knowledge), affective (emotions), behavioral, expressed in aspiration and action plans.
These components are closely interconnected. So, if one of them undergoes some changes, then immediately there is a change in the content of others. In some cases, the affective component of social attitudes is more accessible for research. After all, people will describe the feelings that arise in them in relation to the object much faster than they will talk about the ideas they have received. That is why the social attitude and behavior are most closely related through the affective component.
Today, with the renewed interest in conducting research in the field of attitudinal systems, the structure of attitude is described more broadly. In general, it is considered a stable predisposition and value disposition to a certain assessment of the object, which is based on affective and cognitive reactions, the prevailing behavioral intention,as well as past behavior. The significance of a social attitude lies in its ability to influence affective reactions, cognitive processes, and also future human behavior. Attitude is considered as a total assessment of all components that make up its structure.
Shaping social attitudes
There are several different approaches to studying this issue:
- Behavioral. He considers the social attitude as an intermediate variable that occurs between the appearance of an objective stimulus and an external reaction. This attitude is actually inaccessible for visual description. It serves both as a reaction that arose to a particular stimulus, as well as the stimulus itself for the reaction taking place. With this approach, the attitude is a kind of connecting mechanism between the external environment and the objective stimulus. The formation of a social attitude in this case occurs without the participation of a person due to his observation of the behavior of the surrounding people and its consequences, as well as due to the positive reinforcement of the links between already existing attitudes.
- Motivational. With this approach to the formation of social attitudes, this process is seen as a careful weighing by a person of the pros and cons. In this case, the individual can accept a new attitude for himself or determine the consequences of its adoption. Two theories are considered as a motivational approach to the formation of social attitudes. According to the first of them, called the "Cognitive Response Theory", the formation of attitudes occurs whennegative or positive response of the individual to a new position. In the second case, the social attitude is the result of a person's assessment of the benefits that the acceptance or non-acceptance of a new attitude can bring. This hypothesis is called the Expected Benefit Theory. In this regard, the main factors influencing the formation of attitudes in the motivational approach are the price of the upcoming choice and the benefit from its consequences.
- Cognitive. In this approach, there are several theories that have a certain similarity with each other. One of them was proposed by F. Haider. This is the Structural Balance Theory. There are two other recognized hypotheses. One of them is congruence (P. Tannebaum and C. Ostud), and the second is cognitive dissonance (P. Festinger). They are based on the idea that a person always strives for internal consistency. Due to this, the formation of attitudes becomes the result of the desire of the individual to resolve the existing internal contradictions that have arisen in connection with the inconsistency of cognitions and social attitudes.
- Structural. This approach was developed by researchers at the Chicago School in the 1920s. It is based on the ideas of J. Mead. The key hypothesis of this scientist is the assumption that people develop their attitudes by adopting the attitudes of "others". These friends, relatives and acquaintances are significant for a person, and therefore they are a decisive factor in the formation of an attitude.
- Genetic. Proponents of this approach believe that attitudes may not be direct, butmediated factors, such as, for example, innate differences in temperament, natural biochemical reactions and intellectual abilities. Social attitudes determined genetically are more accessible and stronger than those acquired. At the same time, they are more stable, less changeable, and also have greater significance for their carriers.
Researcher J. Godefroy identified three stages during which an individual undergoes a process of socialization and an attitude is formed.
The first one lasts from birth to 12 years. During this period, all social attitudes, norms and values in a person are formed in full accordance with parental models. The next stage lasts from 12 years old and ends at 20 years old. This is the time when social attitudes and human values become more concrete. Their formation is associated with the assimilation by the individual of roles in society. Over the next decade, the third stage lasts. It covers the period from 20 to 30 years. At this time, a kind of crystallization of an attitude takes place in a person, on the basis of which a stable system of beliefs begins to form. Already by the age of 30, social attitudes are distinguished by significant stability, and it is very difficult to change them.
Attitudes and society
There is a certain social control in human relations. It represents the influence of society on social attitudes, social norms, values, ideas, human behavior and ideals
The main components of this type of control are expectations, as well as norms and sanctions.
The first of these threeelements is expressed in the requirements of others for a particular person, which are expressed in the form of expectations of one form or another of social attitudes adopted by him.
Social norms are examples of what people should think and say, do and feel in a given situation.
As for the third component, it serves as a measure of impact. That is why social sanctions are the main means of social control, which is expressed in a variety of ways to regulate human life activities, due to a variety of group (social) processes.
How is such control exercised? Its most basic forms are:
- laws, which are a series of normative acts regulating formal relationships between people across the state;
- taboos, which are a system of prohibitions on the commission of certain thoughts and actions of a person.
In addition, social control is carried out on the basis of customs, which are considered as social habits, traditions, morals, mores, existing etiquette, etc.
Social attitudes in the production process
In the 20-30s of the last century, the theory of management (management) developed at a rapid pace. A. Fayol was the first to note the presence of many psychological factors in it. Among them, the unity of leadership and power, the subordination of one's own interests to the common ones, corporate spirit, initiative, etc.
After analyzing the issues of enterprise management, A. Fayol noted that weaknesses in the form of laziness and selfishness, ambition and ignorance lead people to neglect common interests, giving preference to private ones. The words spoken at the beginning of the last century have not lost their relevance in our time. After all, socio-economic attitudes exist not only in each particular company. They take place wherever people's interests intersect. This happens, for example, in politics or in economics.
Thanks to the theory of A. Fayol, management began to be considered a specific and at the same time independent activity of people. The result of this was the emergence of a new branch of science, which is called "Psychology of Management".
At the beginning of the 20th century there was a combination of two approaches in management. Namely sociological and psychological. The depersonalized relations were replaced by the accounting of motivational, personal and other socio-psychological attitudes, without which the organization's activities are impossible. This made it possible to stop considering man an appendage of the machine. The relationships that developed between people and mechanisms led to a new understanding. Man, according to the theory of A. Maillol, was not a machine. At the same time, the management of mechanisms was not identified with the management of people. And this statement made a significant contribution to the understanding of the essence and place of human activity in the enterprise management system. Management practices have been changed through several amendments, the main ones beingwere as follows:
- greater attention to the social needs of workers;
- rejection of the hierarchical structure of power within the organization;
- recognition of the high role of those informal relations that take place between company employees;
- rejection of super-specialized labor activity;
- develop methods for studying informal and formal groups that exist within the organization.
