If we analyze in detail the types of modern electoral systems, it turns out that how many countries in the world, so many types. I'm talking, of course, about democracies. But there are only three main types of electoral systems. With its own strengths and weaknesses.
What types of electoral systems are the best today? No serious political scientist can answer this question for you. Because it is like in clinical medicine: “it is not a disease in general that needs to be treated, but a specific patient” - everything is taken into account, from the age and weight of a person to the most complex genetic analyzes. So it is with the types of electoral systems - numerous factors play a role: the history of the country, time, political situation, international, economic and national nuances - it is impossible to list everything in the article. But in reality, when the main basic principles of the political structure of the country related to the electoral right are discussed and approved, absolutely everything should be taken into account. Only in this case it will be possible to speak about adequateelectoral system "here and now".
Statements and definitions
The concept and types of electoral systems are presented in the sources in several versions:
The electoral system in the broadest sense is
a set of legal norms that form the electoral right. Suffrage is a set of legal norms governing the participation of citizens in elections.”
The electoral system in the narrow sense is
"a set of legal norms that determine the results of voting."
If we think from the point of view of organizing and holding elections, the following wording seems to be the most appropriate.
The electoral system is a technology for transforming voters' votes into mandates of delegates. This technology should be transparent and neutral so that all parties and candidates are on an equal footing.
The concept and definition of suffrage and the electoral system varies from one historical stage to another and from one country to another. Nevertheless, the main types of electoral systems have already developed into a clear unified classification, which is accepted all over the world.
Types of electoral systems
Classification of types is based on the mechanism of distribution of mandates based on the results of voting and the rules for the formation of power structures and authorities.
In a majoritarian system, the candidate or party with the most votes wins. Types of majoritarian electoral system:
- In an absolute majority system, 50%+1 vote is needed to win.
- In the systema relative majority requires a simple majority, even if it is less than 50%. The simplest and most understandable variety for the voter, which is very popular in local elections.
- In a qualified majority system, more than 50% of the votes are needed at a predetermined rate of 2/3 or ¾ votes.
Proportional system: authorities are elected from parties or political movements that provide lists of their candidates. Voting goes for this or that list. Party representatives receive government mandates based on the votes received - proportionally.
Mixed system: Majority and proportional systems apply simultaneously. Part of the mandates is obtained through a majority of votes, the other part - through party lists.
Hybrid system: the combination of majoritarian and proportional systems does not proceed in parallel, but sequentially: first, parties nominate their candidates from lists (proportional system), then voters vote for each candidate individually (majority system).
Majoritarian electoral system
The majority system is the most common electoral scheme. There is no alternative, if one person is elected to one position - president, governor, mayor, etc. It can also be successfully applied in parliamentary elections. In such cases, single-member constituencies are formed, from which one deputy is elected.
Types of majoritarian electoral system with different definitions of the majority (absolute, relative, qualified) are describedhigher. Detailed description requires two additional subtypes of the majority system.
Elections held under an absolute majority scheme sometimes fail. This happens when there are a large number of candidates: the more there are, the less likely any of them will get 50% + 1 vote. This situation can be avoided with the help of alternative or majoritarian-preferential voting. This method has been tested in the elections to the Australian Parliament. Instead of one candidate, the voter votes for several on the principle of "desirability". The number “1” is placed against the name of the most preferred candidate, the number “2” is placed opposite the second most desirable candidate, and further down the list. The counting of votes is unusual here: the winner is the one who scored more than half of the "first preference" ballots - they are counted. If no one has received such a number, the candidate who has the fewest ballots in which he was marked as the first number is excluded from the count, and his votes are given to other candidates with "second preferences", etc. The serious advantages of the method are the ability to avoid repeated voting and maximum consideration of the will of the electorate. Disadvantages - the complexity of counting ballots and the need to do this only centrally.
In the world history of suffrage, one of the oldest is the concept of a majoritarian electoral system, while types of preferential electoral process are new formats that imply broad explanatory work and high political culture asvoters and members of election commissions.
Majoritarian systems with repeat voting
The second way to deal with a large number of candidates is more familiar and widespread. This is a re-vote. The usual practice is to re-ballot the first two candidates (accepted in the Russian Federation), but there are other options, for example, in France in the elections to the National Assembly, everyone who has received at least 12.5% of the votes from their constituencies is re-elected.
In the system of two rounds in the last, second round, it is enough to win by a relative majority of votes. In a three-round system, an absolute majority of votes is required in the repeat voting, so sometimes a third round must be held, in which a relative majority is allowed to win.
The majority system is great for electoral processes in two-party systems, when the two dominant parties, depending on the results of the vote, change positions with each other - who is in power, who is in opposition. Two classic examples are British Labor and Conservatives or American Republicans and Democrats.
Dignity of the majority system:
- The opportunity to form effective and stable governments.
- Easy to control the election process.
- Easy vote counting, easy to understand for voters.
- Transparency of the process.
- Possibility of participation of independent candidates.
- "The role of the individual in history" - the ability to vote for the individual, not for the party.
Disadvantages of the majority system:
- If there are many candidates, the person with the fewest votes (10% or less) may win.
- If the parties participating in the elections are immature and do not have serious authority in society, there is a risk of creating an ineffective legislature.
- Votes cast for losing candidates are lost.
- The principle of universality is violated.
- You can win with a skill called "oratory", which is not related to, for example, legislative work.
Proportional Electoral System
The proportional system originated in the early 20th century in Belgium, Finland and Sweden. The technology of elections based on party lists is highly variable. Varieties of proportional methods exist and are implemented depending on what is more important at the moment: clear proportionality or high certainty of voting results.
Types of proportional electoral system:
- With open or closed party lists.
- With or without interest barrier.
- Across a single multi-member constituency or multiple multi-member constituencies.
- Voting blocs allowed or banned.
Special mention is the option of elections by party lists with additional single-mandate constituencies, which combines two types of systems - proportional and majoritarian. This method is described below ashybrid - a kind of mixed electoral system.
Advantages of the proportional system:
- The opportunity for minorities to have their own deputies in parliament.
- Development of multi-party system and political pluralism.
- An accurate picture of the political forces in the country.
- The possibility of small parties entering power structures.
Disadvantages of the proportional system:
- MPs lose contact with their constituents.
- Party strife.
- The dictates of the party leaders.
- An "unsustainable" government.
- The "locomotive" method, when famous personalities at the head of party lists, after voting, refuse mandates.
Panashing
An extremely interesting method that deserves special mention. It can be used in both majoritarian and proportional elections. This is a system in which the voter has the right to choose and cast their vote for candidates from different parties. It is even possible to add new names of candidates to the party lists. Panache is used in a number of European countries, including France, Denmark, and others. The advantage of the method is the independence of voters from candidates belonging to a particular party - they can vote according to personal preferences. At the same time, the same advantage can result in a serious disadvantage: voters can choose “darling” candidates who will not be able to find a common language because of completely oppositepolitical views.
Suffrage and types of electoral systems are dynamic concepts, they develop along with the changing world.
Mixed electoral system
Mixed options for elective campaigns are the optimal types for “complex” countries with a heterogeneous population based on various characteristics: national, cultural, religious, geographical, social, etc. States with a large population also belong to this group. For such countries, it is extremely important to create and maintain a balance between regional, local and national interests. Therefore, the concept and types of electoral systems in such countries have always been and are in the focus of increased attention.
European "patchwork" countries, historically assembled from principalities, separate lands and free cities centuries ago, still form their elected authorities according to a mixed type: these are, for example, Germany and Italy.
The oldest classic example is Great Britain with a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Legislative Assembly.
The Russian Federation is one of the most "suitable" countries for the use of mixed types of electoral systems. Arguments - a huge country, a large and heterogeneous population in almost all criteria. The types of electoral systems in the Russian Federation will be described in detail below.
There are two types in the mixed electoral system:
- Mixed uncoupled electoral system where mandates are distributed by majoritarian system and do not depend on "proportional" voting.
- Mixeda related electoral system in which parties receive their mandates in majoritarian districts, but distribute them depending on the votes within the proportional system.
Hybrid electoral system
Mixed system option: integrated election option with sequential principles of nomination (proportional list system) and voting (majority system with personal voting). There are two stages in the hybrid type:
- First advancement. Lists of candidates are formed in local party cells in each constituency. Self-nomination within the party is also possible. Then all lists are approved at a party congress or conference (this should be the highest party body according to the charter).
- Then vote. Elections are held in single-member constituencies. Candidates may be selected for their personal merit or their party affiliation.
It should be noted that hybrid types of elections and electoral systems are not held in the Russian Federation.
Advantages of a mixed system:
- Balance of federal and regional interests.
- The composition of power is adequate to the balance of political forces.
- Legislative continuity and stability.
- Strengthening political parties, stimulating a multi-party system.
Despite the fact that the mixed system is essentially the sum of the advantages of the majority and proportional systems, it has its drawbacks.
Disadvantages of a mixed system:
- Risk of fragmentation of the partysystems (especially in young democracies).
- Small factions in parliament, patchwork parliaments.
- Possible minority wins over majority.
- Difficulties with the recall of deputies.
Elections in foreign countries
The arena for political battles - such a metaphor can describe the implementation of the right to vote in most democratic countries. At the same time, the main types of electoral systems in foreign countries are the same three basic methods: majoritarian, proportional and mixed.
Often, electoral systems differ in the numerous qualifications included in the concept of suffrage in each country. Examples of some voting qualifications:
- Voting age (in most countries, you can vote from 18).
- Settlement and citizenship requirement (can be elected and be elected only after a certain period of residence in the country).
- Property qualification (proof of payment of high taxes in Turkey, Iran).
- Moral qualification (in Iceland you need to have a "good character")
- Religious qualification (muslim in Iran).
- Gender qualification (banning women from voting).
While most qualifications are easy to prove or determine (for example, taxes or age), some qualifications like "good character" or "living a decent life" are rather vague concepts. Fortunately, such exotic moral norms are very rare in today's electoral processes.
Concept and typeselectoral systems in Russia
All types of electoral systems are represented in the Russian Federation: majoritarian, proportional, mixed, which are described by five federal laws. The history of Russian parliamentarism is one of the most tragic in the world: the All-Russian Constituent Assembly became one of the first victims of the Bolsheviks back in 1917.
It can be said that the main type of electoral system in Russia is the majoritarian one. The President of Russia and top officials are elected by majority absolute majority.
Proportional system with percentage barrier was used from 2007 to 2011. during the formation of the State Duma: those who received from 5 to 6% of the vote had one mandate, parties that received votes in the range of 6-7% had two mandates.
A mixed proportional-majority system has been used in elections to the State Duma since 2016: half of the deputies were elected in single-member districts by a majoritarian relative majority. The second half was elected on a proportional basis in a single constituency, the barrier in this case was lower - only 5%.
A few words about the unified voting day, which was established in the Russian electoral system in 2006. The first and second Sundays of March are the days of regional and local elections. As for the single day in autumn, since 2013 it has been appointed to the second Sunday of September. But given the relatively low turnout inearly autumn, when many voters are still resting, the timing of the autumn voting day can be discussed and adjusted.
