The reason for many speech disorders lies in the improper functioning of its central and peripheral organs. In order to identify them and decide on a strategy for corrective work, one should know their structure, functions, and mechanisms of interaction. All this makes up the physiological foundations of speech, let's briefly consider them.
Structure of the speech apparatus
The physiological basis of speech is a subtle mechanism of interaction between its two departments - central and peripheral.
The central part of the speech apparatus is located in several brain structures:
- In the temporal part of the left hemisphere, the Wernicke center is located, where the analysis and distinction of sounds, their number and sound order in words takes place.
- Brock's center (inferior frontal gyrus, its posterior third) - through nerve impulses controls the work of the speech muscles, due to which the smooth and consistent nature of their movements is carried out, as well as control of their position.
- Subcortical nuclei create the basis for the formation of innate vocal reflexes, on the basis of whichfree speech is formed. The subcortical nuclei of the extrapyramidal system regulate the functioning of the speech muscles. The fluency of speech, its tempo and emotionality, the pitch of the voice are realized by the subcortical-cerebellar nuclei.
- Coordination of movements and muscle tone of the vocal, respiratory and articulation departments is provided by the work of the cerebellum.
- The brainstem innervates the organs of the peripheral part of the speech apparatus.
The peripheral department includes three departments:
- respiratory (provides both physiological and specific speech breathing);
- voice, or phonation - forms a voice;
- articulatory - pronounces speech sounds.
The physiological basis of the method of speech development suggests that many causes of speech defects are the result of disturbances in the structure and interaction of the central and peripheral parts of the speech apparatus.
Mechanisms of speech
Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological foundations of speech helps to understand the causes of speech disorders.
Each speech act is provided not by a specific "specialized" group of brain cells, but by complex, interconnected and multi-level actions of the nervous system. Its mechanisms differ in their structure, in nature, in depth, depending on its most subtle nuances. That is, such a complex function of the brain as speech is provided by the complex interaction of its various parts. At the same time, their list changes significantly even when solving very similar problems.speech tasks. Understanding the physiological foundations of speech in psychology explains why, for example, the mechanism of pronunciation of the same word will differ significantly if it is pronounced cheerfully or sadly, with preliminary reflection or spontaneously.
The main mechanisms of speech are:
- motivation and forecasting;
- programming the statement;
- transition from the plan of the statement to its implementation;
- search for the desired epithet;
- motor planning of the utterance;
- choose desired speech sounds;
- realization of speech.
Modern studies of speech activity show that the physiological foundations of speech and thinking are closely interrelated and are provided by the subtle interaction of many of their mechanisms. Some of them have not yet been studied.
The physiological basis of speech is much more complex than previously thought.
Types of speech
Careful analysis of a conversation between two or more people will help identify the following types:
- external - serves to communicate and transfer information from the speaker to the listener (or listeners);
- oral (monologic, dialogic) - carried out with the help of sounds;
- internal - a person thinks, formulates and puts his thoughts into words;
- written - possible with the ability of a person to designate sounds with letters, with literacy;
- gestural or kinetic.
BIn the process of verbal communication, a person can take an active position as a speaker or a passive listener.
Oral form of speech
Most of the world's languages have two forms.
Oral form: speech sounds, a person perceives it by ear and pronounces it.
Oral speech, compared to written, is less complete, since a lot of information is transmitted to the interlocutor with the help of interjections, pauses, emotional exclamations and non-verbal means - gestures, facial expressions, body movements, posture. Sentences of written ("bookish") speech are more complex in structure, they include complex phrases, since more time is spent on thinking over the content of the text and choosing speech means than in oral speech.
Written form
Carried out with the help of special letters-signs, perceived by the visual organs or tactilely, by touch. There are many carriers of written speech - a person writes on paper, on glass, on sand, on asph alt, etc. Ancient writings come to us on clay tablets, on stone, on fabric, on birch bark.
A person who reads a lot and is accustomed to public speaking (for example, a teacher, lecturer) has oral speech, which is closer in its characteristics to written language. This is due to the fact that in preparing for communication with the audience, he first carefully thinks through his speech, writes it down, and then reproduces the written text aloud from memory with all its features.
Speech Features
Mainspeech function - communication, during which a number of other general speech functions are carried out:
- regulating - managing one's own and others' individual or collective behavior through direct or indirect requests, orders, instructions;
- planning - preliminary thinking and logical alignment in time and space of their actions in the form of an oral or written plan (a housewife plans her affairs for tomorrow, the teacher makes a lesson plan, the organizer writes a plan for a social event);
- intellectual or cognitive function is carried out on the basis of generalization of external information entering the human brain through the senses;
- nominative function: the word as a linguistic sign acts as a means of cognition, comprehension, generalization of material and non-material phenomena of the surrounding reality. Naming and describing the properties of this or that phenomenon, object, the word, as it were, replaces its real presence in the mind of the individual;
- function of preserving historical social experience and national culture;
- emotional, expressive function is characteristic of oral speech, when the speaker expresses his feelings and emotions using a variety of, including non-verbal, means of communication.
Speech functions are most often used not in isolation, but in combination. For example, in communication (communicative function) a person names something (nominative), expresses his feelings (emotional), learns (cognitive), expresses his wishes or requirements (regulatory).
In addition to the above-mentioned general speech functions, psycholinguistics distinguishes a large number of private ones. For example, a person expresses his own desire, will (volitional function): “I want to go to the cinema!”. The appellative expresses an appeal to someone: "See you, friends!". Using the names of something - streets, geographical objects (cities, seas, mountains, etc.) - a person uses the marking function. Even silence (can be dictated by various motives - religious, emotional, ethical) - is a kind of communicative function in the absence of external speech.
Quality of spoken language
High requirements for its quality are dictated primarily by the care that the communicative function is not violated. Otherwise, misunderstanding or misinterpretation of misunderstood information leads to wrong conclusions and undesirable actions.
Mandatory qualities of good oral speech, speech culture, are its moderate completeness and consistency, concreteness, accuracy in the selection of vocabulary and expressive means, stylistic diversity, purity.
Negative qualities that make her both difficult to understand and uninteresting to the listener, unattractive to communicate:
- too short or too long;
- illogical presentation due to the use of contradictory statements, phrases, incorrect construction of oral or written text;
- stylistic monotony;
- use of "verbal garbage" - vulgarisms, words-parasites, unnecessary or incomprehensible terms to the listener to make speech scientific and solid;
- intonation inexpressiveness, monotony, incorrectly chosen tempo of speech.
Such communicative qualities as a positive attitude towards the interlocutor, demonstrating a respectful and patient attitude towards his position and points of view on the issues discussed indicate the general cultural level of a person, cause a desire to communicate with him.
Quality writing
Written speech, like oral speech, should also be understandable, logical, interesting, competent, emotional, sufficient volume for the reader to understand the main thoughts and conclusions of the writer. If the author cites some facts, then they should be reasonable references to primary sources and accessible to the reader.
Typical shortcomings of written speech, perceived as the author's illiteracy, are poor vocabulary (insufficient vocabulary), inaccurate word usage, as a result of which thoughts are not clearly formulated; tautology, speech stamps, clericalism, stylistic, punctuation, grammatical errors, the presence of non-literary words and expressions.
or an adult), from the topic and purpose of communication, from the physical,emotional state of the communicants.
Scope of speech
Speech as the main means of communication is used in all spheres of human activity: in everyday life, scientific, aesthetic, industrial, political, religious, etc. The uniform conditions and rules of communication in each of these areas are specific, which leaves a special imprint on the content, quality, style of speech.
With a change in the field of activity or living conditions of a person, his speech also undergoes changes: the dictionary, grammatical structure, subject matter, style are updated.
However, already formed speech stereotypes are very stable, since the mechanisms of speech are very stable. So, a former rural resident can be easily distinguished from a native city dweller by speech, and a representative of mental labor from a worker.
Since the physiological basis of speech is a complex mechanism of interaction between its central and peripheral sections, disorders in the work of each of them can be the cause of speech disorders. This may impose restrictions on the choice of the field of human activity. For example, severe forms of stuttering are unacceptable for a teacher.
