Few people know about the Sassanid state, but it was a powerful empire. It was located on the territory of modern Iran and Iraq. The Sassanid Empire, its formation, dynasty and possessions will be discussed in this article.
Rise
The Sassanids are a whole dynasty of Shahinshahs (Persian rulers) who formed the Sassanid Empire in 224 in the Middle East. This clan came from Fars (Pars), the current territory in southern Iran. The dynasty was named after Sasan, the father of the first king of Fars (Pars) named Papak. Ardashir I, son of Papak, in 224 defeated the Parthian king Artaban V, and then founded a new state. It began to gradually expand, conquering and annexing new territories.
In the 3rd century A. D. e. Iran was a state that was nominally united under the rule of the Arshakids (Parthian dynasty). In fact, it was a confederation consisting of various disparate and semi-independent, and often independent kingdoms and principalities, headed by princes from large local nobility. Internecine wars and various internal clashes that took placeconstantly, significantly weakened Iran. In addition, the Roman Empire, with its military power during the expansion to the East, forced the Iranians and Parthians to cede to it several regions in the north of Mesopotamia.
Ardashir I took advantage of this situation, when in mid-April 224 he defeated the army of Artaban V. The army of Ardashir I was experienced, before this campaign it conquered significant territories: Parsu, Kerman, Khuzistan and Isfahan.
After winning the battle that took place on the Ormizdagan plain, in order to lead Iran and create the Sassanid empire, Ardashir I had to subdue another 80 specific local princes with the power of his army and seize their lands.
Accession of territories
Despite the fact that Fars was magnificently rebuilt and had many beautifully decorated palaces (some rock reliefs have survived to this day), he did not play a major role in the state. Two capitals were formed at once - Ctesiphon and Seleucia - "cities on the Tigris River".
The most fertile lands were located in the west of the Sassanid state, a large number of cities were built. There were also trade roads that connected the empire with the Mediterranean harbors in its western part. There was access to such states as Caucasian Albania, Armenia, Iveria (Iberia) and Lazika. In the east of the country, in the Persian Gulf, there was a sea outlet to India and southern Arabia.
In 226, Ardashir I was solemnly crowned, after which he received the title of "king of kings" - Shahinshah. After the coronationArdashir I did not stop at the victories achieved and continued to expand the empire. First, the Median state, the city of Hamadan and the regions of Khorasan and Sakastan were subordinated. He then sent his army to Atropatena, which he conquered after fierce resistance. After the victory in Atropatene, most of Armenia was captured.
There is evidence that the Sassanid Empire was subject to Margiana, also known as the Merv oasis, as well as Mekran and Sistan. It turns out that the border of the empire extended to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, in the part where the regions of Khorezm were located. The east of the state was limited to the valley of the Kabul River. Part of the Kushan kingdom was also occupied, which gave rise to the titles of the rulers of the Sassanids to add "King Kushan".
Social order
Studying the power of the Sassanids, one should consider its political structure. At the head of the empire was the Shahinshah, who came from the reigning dynasty. The succession to the throne did not have strict canons, so the reigning Shahinshah tried to appoint a successor during his lifetime. However, this did not guarantee that there would be no difficulties in the transfer of power.
The throne of the Shahinshah could only be occupied by someone who came from the Sassanid dynasty. In other words, their family was, in fact, considered royal. They had a patrimonial inheritance of the throne, but the nobility and the priests tried their best to remove them from the throne.
Mobedan mobedu, the high priest, played a special role in the succession to the throne. His power and position actually competed with the powers of the Shahinshah. In view ofthe latter tried in every possible way to weaken the influence and power of the high priest.
After the Shahinshah and Mobedan, the Shahradra had a high position and power in the state. This is the ruler (king) in areas that had independence and were subordinate only to representatives of the Sassanid dynasty. The rulers in the provinces from the 5th century were called marzlans. Throughout the history of the state, four marzlans were called great and had the title of shah.
Below in rank after the Shahrdars were the Whispuhrs. They represented seven very ancient Iranian dynasties, which had hereditary rights and had serious weight in the state. Basically, representatives of these clans occupied important, and sometimes key government and military posts, which were inherited.
Vizurgis (vuzurgis) are representatives of the highest ranks in the administration and military administration of the state, who had large land ownership and were considered nobles. In the sources they are mentioned with such epithets as "great", "noble", "large" and "eminent". Of course, the Vizrgi played a significant role in the Sassanid state.
Army
The Sassanid army was officially called the "Army of Rustam" ("Rostam"). It was formed by Ardashir I, who was the founder of the dynasty. The army was created from a revived Ahmenid military structure, incorporating elements from Parthian military art.
The army was organized according to the principle of the decimal system, that is, its structural units were units thatnumbered ten, one hundred, one thousand, ten thousand fighters. The names of structural units are known from sources:
- Radag - ten warriors.
- Tahm is a hundred.
- Vast - five hundred.
- Drafs - a thousand.
- Grund - five thousand.
- Spah is ten thousand.
The tahm unit was subordinate to an officer with the rank of tahmdar, then, in ascending order, wast-salar, drafts-salar, grund-salar and spah-bed. The latter, being a general, was subordinate to the arteshtaran-salar, who came from the vispukhrs, they were mentioned earlier.
The main striking force of the Sasanian army was the cavalry. Elephants, infantry and infantry archers were also present in the army, but they played secondary roles and, in fact, were an auxiliary force.
The history of the army is divided into two periods - from Ardashir I and after Khosrov I, who reformed the army. The fundamental difference between these periods is that before the reform it was irregular, and the princes had their own squads. After the reform carried out by Khosrov I Anushirvan, the army became regular, and most importantly, professional.
Other members of society
Continuing to study the history of the Sassanid Empire, we should consider other aspects of the state structure. The most numerous and widespread group were small and medium landowners - Azats (in translation - "free"). They were liable for military service and during wars and campaigns they were the core of the army - the glorified cavalry.
Besides these groups, which belonged toexploiting class in society existed and was being exploited. The so-called taxable estate was represented by peasants and artisans, as well as merchants.
There are no sources indicating that there was corvee in the Sassanid kingdom, therefore, the landowner could not have his own plowing, or could, but its amount was very small. There is also practically no information about how the work and life of the peasants was organized, however, it is known that some groups of farmers used the land on a leasehold basis.
Vastrioshansalar was in charge of the affairs of merchants, artisans and peasants. In addition, he was responsible for collecting taxes. Vastrioshansalar came from a noble family and was appointed directly by the Shahinshah. In some areas of the empire, the Amarkars, who were subordinate to the Vastrioshansalars, were engaged in collecting taxes. The position of amarkars was given to large landowners or representatives of a noble family.
Conditions
Exploring the history of the Sassanids, it is necessary to take into account various sources. So, for example, some of them say that Ardashir I established the division of subjects into estates, of which there were four:
- Asrawans (priests). There were a number of different ranks, the highest being the mobed. Next came the rank of dadhwar (judges). The most numerous were the magician priests, who occupied the lowest level among the clergy.
- Arteshtarans (class of the military). They included foot and horse soldiers. The cavalry was created only from the privileged strata of society, and military leaders becameexclusively representatives of a noble family.
- Dibherana (estate of scribes). Its representatives were mainly government officials. However, it also included professions such as doctors, biographers, secretaries, poets, writers and compilers of diplomatic documents.
- Vastrioshan and Khutukhshan are peasants and artisans, representatives of the lowest class in the empire. This also included merchants, merchants and representatives of other professions.
It should be noted that within each of the estates of the Sassanid state there were a huge number of differences and gradations. There were a large number of options both in property and economic terms. No unity of groups existed and could not exist in principle.
Religion
The traditional religion of the Sassanids was Zoroastrianism. After his coronation, Ardashir I received the Zoroastrian title of king and founded a temple of fire, which later became a common state sanctuary.
During his reign, Ardashir I concentrated not only military, civil, but also religious power in his hands. The Sassanids worshiped Ahura Mazda - the "Wise God", who created everything around, and Zarathushtra was considered his prophet, who showed people the way to purity and righteousness.
The first religious reformer - Kartir - was originally a kherbed (teacher in the temple), who taught future priests Zoroastrian rituals. He rose after the death of Ardashir I, at the time when Shapur I began to rule. Kartir, on behalf of the Shahinshah, beganorganize new Zoroastrian temples in the conquered territories.
Gradually he took a high position in the empire, later becoming the spiritual mentor of the grandson of Shapur I - Varahran. In the future, Kartir begins to believe in his destiny so much that he creates a new religion - mani, considering himself a prophet along with Zarathushtra. It is formed under the influence of the Sassanid discovery of Buddhism and Christianity in the occupied lands.
Mani recognized the Last Judgment, but differed from Zoroastrianism. Although it was initially accepted, after the death of Kartira it is recognized as heresy, Zoroastrianism again becomes the main religion of the empire.
Culture
The art of the Sassanids appears as if suddenly. During the reign of the first five Shahinshahs, 30 huge rock reliefs were created in different regions of Fars (Pars). On the reliefs, as well as on the coins of the Sassanids, special seals carved from stone, bowls made of silver, new canons of art for the empire were formed in just a few decades.
The "official image" of Shahinshahs, priests, and also nobles appears. A separate direction appeared in the image of the deity and religious symbols. The formation of a new trend in Sasanian art is influenced by the conquered territories, as well as China, with which trade was conducted.
The emblem of the Sassanids depicts the Simurgh with a fiery tongue, placed in a dotted circle. He appeared under the founder of the empire - Ardashir I. Simurgh is a mythical winged sea dog, whichinterestingly, his body is covered with fish scales. For all his unusual appearance, he also has a peacock tail. This symbol of the Sassanids denotes the era of the reign of kings belonging to two dynasties - the Arshakids and the Sassanids. Simurgh himself is a symbol of dominance over the three elements - air, earth and water.
In Sasanian art one can find rock carvings of winged bulls, lions, griffins, as well as fights between these mythical animals. Similar images have been preserved since the time of the Ahmenids, although many were acquired from the newly captured lands.
Fight against the Sassanids
The struggle against the empire went on throughout the years of its existence. Periodically, in one of the many regions of the state, uprisings broke out and attempts were made to throw off the yoke of the Sassanids. However, thanks to the professional army, all these performances were quickly suppressed.
Nevertheless, there were events that forced the Sassanids to retreat or simply surrender. So, for example, there is a case when King Poroz (Peroz), who ruled at the end of the fifth century, was defeated by the Hephthalites. Moreover, after the defeat of his army, he still had to pay a huge indemnity, which, in fact, was also shameful.
Poroz places the burden of payment on the Transcaucasian regions of his state. These events led to a new wave of discontent, and the uprising broke out with great force. Moreover, a considerable part of the nobility joined the uprising. The uprising was led by the King of Kartli Vakhtang I, nicknamed"Gorgasal", which stands for "wolf's head". He received such a nickname thanks to the wolf depicted on the helmet. Also, Vakhan Mamikomyan sparapet (supreme commander) of Armenia joined the uprising.
After a long bitter war, the next Shahinshah of the Sassanid Empire - Wallach - in 484 was forced to sign a peace treaty with the nobility of the Transcaucasian countries. According to this document, the countries of Transcaucasia received self-government, privileges and rights of the nobility, as well as the Christian clergy. The local nobility becomes the head of the countries, in Armenia - Vakhan Mamikonyan, and in Albania the old royal power is restored.
Despite the fact that this treaty was soon violated, these were the first heralds of the end of the Sassanid era.
The Decline of an Empire
Yazdegerd III was the last Shahinshah in the Sassanid state. He ruled from 632 to 651, which were very difficult years for a very young ruler. Yazdegerd III was the grandson of Khosrow II, with whom one legend is associated.
He was foretold that the empire would fall if his grandson with some kind of handicap ascended the throne. After that, Khosrow II ordered all his sons to be locked up, depriving them of the opportunity to communicate with women. However, one of Shahinshah's wives helped her son Shahriyar leave the place of confinement, and he met with a girl whose name is currently unknown. As a result of their meetings, a boy was born, and the wife of the Shahinshah Shirin told Khosrov about the born grandson. The king ordered to show the baby, and when he saw a flaw on his thigh, he ordered to kill him. However, the child was not killed, butalienated from the court, settling in Sathra, where he grew up.
At the time when Yazdegerd III was crowned and became Shahinshah, Saad Abu Waqas in the spring, in 633, united the Muslim army and the allied tribes and attacked Obollu and Hira. In principle, from that time on, the beginning of the fall of the Sassanids can be counted. Many researchers argue that this was the beginning of a large-scale Arab expansion, undertaken with the aim of forcing all Arabs to accept the Islamic faith.
Arab troops captured city after city, but the once invincible Sasanian army could not lose to the attackers. Occasionally, the Iranians managed to win victories, but they were insignificant and short-lived. The Sassanids, among other things, often robbed local residents, forcing the latter to convert to Islam in order to receive the protection they were promised.
The collapse of the state
In 636, a decisive battle took place, which, in fact, decided the course of further events. In the battle of Kadisiya, the Sassanids gathered a superbly armed army of just over 40 thousand people. And there were also more than 30 war elephants. With the help of such an army, it was possible to push back the Muslim army and occupy Hira.
For several months, the army of Saad Abu Waqqas and the Sassanid army did not take any action. The invaders were offered a ransom to leave Iranian lands, they even tried to resolve the issue at the court of Shahinshah Yazdegerd III, but this did not bring results.
Muslims demanded that the Sassanids give them earlierconquered lands, guarantee free passage towards Mesopotamia, and accept Islam for the Shahinshah and his nobles. However, the Iranians could not agree to such conditions, and, in the end, the conflict again turned into a hot phase.
The battle lasted four days and was extremely fierce, reinforcements periodically arrived on one side and the other, and as a result, the Arabs defeated the Sassanid army. Moreover, Wahman Jazwayh and Rustam, who were the commanders-in-chief of the Iranian army, were killed. Rustam, in addition to being a skilled military leader, was the support of the throne and a friend of the Shahinshah. Also in the hands of the Arabs was the "banner of Kaveh" - an Iranian shrine adorned with hundreds of precious stones.
After this difficult victory, one of the capitals, Ctesiphon, was defeated. The Arabs captured city after city, the Iranians said that the invaders were helped by higher powers. After the fall of the capital, the Shahinshah fled to Khulvan with his court and treasury. The booty of the Arabs was incredible, for each horseman there were 48 kg of silver, and for an infantryman - 4 kg, and this was after paying 5% of the fifth to the Caliph.
After that, there were victories in Nehavend, Fars, Sakastan and Kerman. The Arab army was already unstoppable, and the fall of the Sassanids became obvious even to themselves. There were still regions and districts under their rule, but they were captured as the Arab army advanced. Periodically conquered areas of the former empire rebelled, but the rebellions were quickly suppressed.
Subsequently, in 656, the son of Yazdegerd III - Peroz, supported by the Chinese Tang Empire, tried to restore his rights toterritory and was declared Shahinshah of Tokharistan. For this audacity, Caliph Ali defeated the troops of Peroz along with his Chinese soldiers, and the latter was forced to flee to China, where he later died.
His son Nasre, again together with the Chinese, captured Balkh for a while, but was defeated by the Arabs, like his father. He retreated to China, where traces of him, like those of the dynasty as a whole, were lost. Thus ended the era of the Sassanids, who once had great influence, possessed vast territories and did not know defeat at all until they met with the Arab army.
