Biology is the science of the general properties of all living things. It began its functioning as an independent discipline relatively recently, at the end of the 19th century. Science owes its appearance to the problems that existed between the definition of the concepts of living and inanimate natural bodies. Despite such a late emergence of biology, this issue has worried people for a long time. It rose in ancient times, in the Middle Ages, as well as in the Renaissance.
Due to the fact that the word "biology" began to be used only at the end of the 19th century, such scientists as biologists did not exist before. Those who studied and developed the discipline of nature were called naturalists, physicians or natural scientists during their lifetime.
Who were such widely known biologists today?
For example:
- Gregor Mendel - a monk.
- Carl Linnaeus - a doctor.
- Charles Darwin - a we althy gentleman.- Louis Pasteur - a chemist.
Antiquity
The basics of knowledge about plants and animals originally laid in theirthe writings of Aristotle. His student Theofast also played a big role in the development of biology.
The writings of Dioscorides were of no small importance for gaining knowledge about living organisms. This ancient thinker compiled a description of a variety of medicinal substances, almost six hundred of which were plants. In the same period, Pliny also worked, collecting information about natural bodies.
Despite the fact that the merits of all the thinkers of the past played a significant role in the development of biology, Aristotle left the most impressive mark in the history of this discipline. He wrote a huge number of works that were devoted to animals. In his writings, Aristotle considered the issues of cognition of individuals representing the terrestrial fauna. The thinker developed his own principles for classifying groups of animals. It was produced on the basis of the essential properties of species. Aristotle also considered the development and reproduction of animals.
Middle Ages
Doctors who lived in this historical period, included in their practice a large number of achievements of antiquity. However, the Roman Empire, captured by the Arabs, fell into decay. And the conquerors translated the works of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers into their own language. But this knowledge was not lost.
Arab medicine of the Middle Ages contributed to the development of the discipline of life. All this happened in the 8th-13th centuries during the period of the so-called golden Islamic age. For example, Al-Jahiz, who lived in 781-869, expressed thoughts about food chains and the existence of evolution. But the Kurdish is still considered the Arab founder of botany.author Al-Dinavari (828-896). He described more than 637 species of various plants, as well as discussions of their development and growth phases.
The reference book of all European physicians until the 17th century was the work of the famous physician Avicenna, where the concepts of pharmacology and clinical research were first introduced. Also noteworthy are the studies of the Spanish Arab Ibn Zuhra. By autopsy, he proved that scabies is caused by the presence of a subcutaneous parasite. He also introduced experimental surgery and conducted the first medical research on animals.
In the Middle Ages, some European scientists also became famous. These included Albert the Great, Hildegard of Bingen, and Frederick II, who compiled the canon of natural history. This work was widely used for study in the earliest European universities, where medicine was second only to theology and philosophy.
Rebirth
Only with the transition of Europe to the heyday did it become possible to revive interest in physiology and natural history. Biologists of that time widely studied the plant world. Thus, Fuchs, Brunfels and some other authors published numerous publications devoted to this topic. These works laid the foundation for a full-scale description of plant life.
The Renaissance was the beginning of the development of modern anatomy - a discipline based on the opening of human bodies. The book of Vesalius gave impetus to this direction.
Contribution to the development of biology was made by such famous artists as Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. They often worked together with naturalists and were interested in the exact structure of the body of animals and humans, displaying their detailed anatomical structure.
Alchemists also contributed to the study of nature. So, Paracelsus conducted experiments with biological and pharmacological sources for the production of drugs.
Seventeenth century
The most important period of this century is the formation of natural history, which became the basis:
- classification of plants and animals;
- further development of anatomy;
- discovery of the second circle of blood circulation;
- beginning of microscopic studies;
- discovery of microorganisms; - the first description of erythrocytes and spermatozoa of animals, as well as plant cells.
In the same period, the English physician William Harvey made a number of important discoveries during his experiments on dissecting animals and monitoring blood circulation. The explorer has achieved the following:
- discovered the presence of a venous valve that does not allow blood to flow in the opposite direction;
- discovered that blood circulation is carried out in addition to the large one also in a small circle;- showed the presence of isolation of the left and right ventricles.
In the 17th century, a completely new field of research began to take shape. It was associated with the advent of the microscope.
The inventor of this device, a craftsman from the Netherlands, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, spentindependent observations, and sent their results to the Royal Society of London. Leeuwenhoek described and drew a large number of microscopic creatures (bacteria, ciliates, etc.), as well as human spermatozoa and red blood cells.
Eighteenth century
Physiology, anatomy and natural history continued to develop in this century. All this created the prerequisites for the emergence of biology. Significant events for the discipline of the nature of living bodies were the studies of Caspar Friedrich Wolf and Albrecht von Haller. The results of these works have greatly expanded knowledge in the field of plant development and animal embryology.
The birth of biology
This term could be found in the works of some natural scientists even before the 19th century. However, at that time its meaning was completely different. It was only at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries that three authors independently began to use the term "biology" in the sense in which it is familiar to us now. The scientists Lamarck, Trevinarus and Burdach used this word to designate the science that describes the general features of living bodies.
Nineteenth century
The most significant events for biology during this period were:
- the formation of paleontology;
- the emergence of the biological basis of stratigraphy;
- the emergence of cell theory: - formation of comparative embryology and anatomy.
19th century biologists began the fight against infectious diseases. So, the English doctor Jenner invented a vaccine, and the result of research by Robert Koch was the discovery of the pathogentuberculosis and the creation of many types of drugs.
Revolutionary discovery
The central event in biology in the second half of the 19th century was the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. The scientist developed this question for twenty-one years, and only after he was convinced of the correctness of the conclusions received, he decided to publish his work. The book was a huge success. But at the same time, it excited the minds of people, as it completely contradicted the ideas about life on Earth that were set forth in the Bible. So, the scientist biologist Darwin argued that the evolution of species continued on our planet for many millions of years. And according to the Bible, six days were enough to create the world.
Another discovery of Charles Darwin in the field of biology was the assertion that all living organisms are fighting each other for habitat and food. The scientist noted that even within one species there are individual individuals with special characteristics. These distinctive properties give the animals an increased chance of survival. Further, special features are transmitted to offspring and gradually become common to the whole species. Weaker and unadapted animals die out. Darwin called this process natural selection.
The greatest merit of this scientist is that he solved the most important problem of biology, connected with the question of the origin and development of the organic world. Today, the entire history of this discipline is conditionally divided into two periods. The first one was beforeDarwin. It was characterized by an unconscious desire to define the evolutionary principle. The second stage in the development of biology began after the publication of Darwin's greatest work. From that moment on, scientists continued to develop the evolutionary principle already consciously.
Activities of Russian researchers
Many important discoveries in the field of the discipline of living organisms were made by domestic biologists. So, in 1820, P. Vishnevsky for the first time suggested the presence of a special substance in antiscorbutic products. It is this, according to the scientist, that contributes to the proper functioning of the body.
Another Russian scientist, N. Lunin, discovered vitamins in 1880. He proved that the composition of food contains certain elements that are vital for the he alth of the whole organism. The term "vitamin" itself appeared when two Latin roots were combined. The first of them - "vita" - means "life", and the second - "amine" - is translated as "nitrogen compound".
Significantly increased interest in natural science among Russian scientists in the 50-60s of the 19th century. It was caused by the propaganda of their worldview by revolutionary-minded democrats. An important factor was the world development of the natural sciences. At that time, such domestic biologists as K. Timiryazev and P. Sechenov, I. Mechnikov and S. Botkin, I. Pavlov and many other doctors and naturalists began their work.
Great physiologist
Pavlov, a biologist, became widely known after conducting research on the central nervous system. These works of the great physiologist becamestarting point for further study of various mental phenomena.
The main merit of Pavlov was the development of the latest principles for that time, studying the activity of the organism in close connection with the external environment. This approach was the basis for the development of not only biology, but also medicine, psychology and pedagogy. The works of the great physiologist were the source of neurophysiology - the study of higher nervous activity.
Twentieth century
In the early 20th century, biological scientists continued to make invaluable contributions to the history of the development of the discipline of living organisms. So, in 1903, such a term as hormones first appeared. It was introduced into biology by Ernest Starling and William Bayliss. In 1935, the concept of "ecosystem" appeared. He was introduced into the discipline by Arthur J. Tensley. This term denoted a complex ecological block. Also, biologists continued to work on the definitions of all stages of the state of a living cell.
Many researchers worked in our country. Russian biologists have made a great contribution to the development of the discipline of living bodies. Among them are the following:
- M. S. Tsvet, who was the first to establish the existence of two modifications of chlorophyll;
- N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky, one of the founders of radiobiology, who established the dependence of the radiation dose on the intensity of mutational processes;
- V. F. Kuprevich, who discovered extracellular enzymes secreted at the ends of the root system of higher plants;- N. K. Koltsov, the founder of the experimentalbiology in Russia.
Many names of Western European biologists are also included in the history of the discipline of living bodies. Thus, the beginning of the century was marked by the discovery of chromosomes as cellular structures that carry the genetic potential. This conclusion was reached independently by many researchers.
In 1910-1915, famous biologists led by Thomas Hunt Morgan developed the chromosome theory of heredity. Population genetics was born in the 1920s and 1930s. In the second half of the century, the discoveries of scientists led to the creation of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. Soviet biologists also made a considerable contribution to this matter.
Great traveler and naturalist
The biologist Vavilov played a huge role in the development of the discipline of living bodies. He is considered a plant grower and geneticist, breeder and applied botanist, geographer and traveler. However, the main direction of his life was the study and development of biology.
Vavilov was a traveler who discovered not new countries at all. He introduced the world to previously unknown plants that amazed contemporaries with the variety of their forms. Many Russian biologists noted that he was a real visionary in his field. In addition, Vavilov was a remarkable organizer, statesman and public figure. This scientist discovered the same fundamental law in the field of biology, which for chemistry is the Mendeleevperiodic system.
What is the main merit of Vavilov? In the law of similarity series he discovered and in the assertion of the existence of patterns in the vast world of fauna, which made it possible to predict the emergence of new species.
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky
From the school curriculum, we are well aware of such names as Newton and Galileo, Einstein and Darwin. All of them were brilliant seers who opened up new horizons for people in the knowledge of society and nature. There were many such geniuses in the 20th century. Among them is the biologist Vernadsky. He can be safely attributed to those researchers who not only saw, but also realized new, previously unknown phenomena.
Vernadsky's works cover a fairly wide range of issues of natural science. This is the sphere of general geochemistry, and the determination of the age of the rock, and the role of living bodies in geochemical processes. Vernadsky put forward the theory of the so-called genetic mineralogy, and also developed the question of isomorphism. The scientist is also considered the founder of biogeochemistry. According to his ideas, the totality of all living organisms in the biosphere constantly involves matter of inorganic origin in a continuous cycle. This process is facilitated by the transformation of solar radiation.
Vernadsky investigated the chemical composition, as well as the prevalence of plant and animal organisms. Similar work was carried out to study the migration processes of chemical elements in the thickness of the earth's crust. Among the discoveries of Vernadsky there is also an indication of the existenceorganisms that are concentrators of calcium, silicon, iron, etc.
