In the second half of the 19th century, in post-reform Russia, the formation of territory continued through the annexation of Asian lands. The population also grew, approaching 128 million by the end of the century. Villagers dominated.
Features of Russian capitalism
The reforms carried out in the country by Alexander II opened up the possibility of developing capitalist relations in Russia. From 1861, capitalism gradually began to assert itself as the leading mode of production. True, he had a number of features that distinguished him from the European version.
Traditional structures have been preserved in the socio-political sphere and in the country's economy:
- landlord property;
- peasant community;
- division into estates, their inequality;
- tsarism, protecting the interests of the landowners.
Society in all its strata is not yet “ripe” for capitalist relations. This was especially true for rural residents, and therefore the state was forced to influence the economy and the evolution of political processes.
The rate of development of capitalism in post-reform Russia was very high. The way that it has passed for several decades, the European states have mastered for centuries. The process of modernization of industry and rural labor dragged on for a long time, and Russia was “catching up” with the capitalist countries of that time that had gone far ahead in their development.
Agriculture. Business types
Post-reform development in Russia of the agrarian sector, which occupies a dominant position, was the slowest pace. Of the 280 million acres of land, 102 were private, and 2/3 of them belonged to the landowners. At this time, three types of landowner farming were formed: labor, capitalist and mixed.
The labour-service, semi-serf system has remained a heavy legacy of centuries of peasant slavery. Robbed after the "bestowal" of freedom, landless, poor, they went to the same landowner as tenants of land, in fact - into bondage. It would be unrealistic to expect highly productive labor from the semi-feudal form of exploitation of the peasant. Working off were distributed in the central regions and in the Volga region.
The use of peasant freelance labor, the use of modern tools belonging to the landowner in work are signs of the capitalist agricultural system. Here there was a wide introduction of machines, technology, new methods of agricultural technology were quickly mastered. Accordingly, they achieved high rates both in labor productivity and in the final result. This is how the landlords workedfarms in Ukraine, Belarus and the B altics.
The mixed system was common in eastern Ukraine, eastern Belarus and some western Russian provinces.
Evolution of agriculture
In the post-reform period in Russia, the ongoing changes were of a rapid nature. Already by the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century, the capitalist system began to displace the labor system throughout the country. Those landowners who could not reorganize their management in a new way went bankrupt and sold their possessions. Land redistribution has begun.
At that time it was even more difficult for the peasants than for the landowners to understand the essence of what was happening. Lack of land, lack of money for taxes and redemption payments, redistribution of land within the community, illiteracy - these problems worried the peasants above all, forcing them to literally fight for their lives. Most of the farms were close to complete ruin.
In general, agriculture developed along the capitalist path. Growth in production was mainly due to an increase in arable land, although the use of technology in advanced farms also increased labor productivity. There was a division of regions for the production of certain products, which also gave good results: the black earth of Russia, the Volga region and the south of Ukraine became grain regions, dairy cattle breeding went well in the central regions, and beef cattle were raised in the southeast of the country. Russian agricultural market formed.
Preserved from the previous time in sharpconfrontation, incomplete capitalist transformations, relations between landowners and peasants remained sharp, ready for revolutionary upheavals.
Features of the development of capitalism in industry
The abolition of serfdom gave impetus to the development of capitalism in industry as well: a workforce appeared from landless peasants, capital began to accumulate in specific hands, a domestic market was formed, and international relations appeared.
But the passage of all phases of development in a short period of time has introduced its own, Russian features into the evolution of industry. It was characterized by:
- Neighborhood of large enterprises with manufactory, handicraft production.
- A combination of developed industrial regions (Moscow, St. Petersburg, the B altic states, Ukraine) with distant, undeveloped outskirts of the country (Siberia, Central Asia, the Far East).
- Uneven development of industries. Textile enterprises were actively developing, where half of all workers were employed. The food industry developed well. The enterprises of these branches differed by the highest percent of use of equipment. Heavy industry (mining, metallurgy, oil) moved more slowly than light industry, but still gained momentum. Domestic mechanical engineering developed poorly.
- State intervention in industry, pushing it forward with subsidies, loans, government orders, which later gave rise to state capitalism.
- The development of capitalist industry in some industries withbased on foreign capital. European states, assessing the size of the benefits, subsidized funds for Russian capitalism.
Rail transport development
A very important role in the post-reform economic development of Russia was played by the emergence of railway transport. The railways helped to solve many economic, strategic and social issues to an unprecedented height in the country before. The development of roads led to the further development of industrial and agricultural sectors.
The road network began its birth from the central part of the country. Developing at a tremendous pace, by the end of the century, it covered the outlying regions of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, the Urals and Siberia. For comparison: the length of the railway line in the early 60s was only two thousand miles, and by the end of the century - 53 thousand. Europe and Russia seem to be closer to each other.
But in the development of railway transport, Russia differed from other states. The industry was financed by private, sometimes foreign capital. But very soon the railways were state property.
Water transport in Russia
The use of waterways was more familiar to Russian industrialists than the development of railways. River transport in the post-reform period of Russia's development also did not remain in place.
Steam ships sailed along the Volga. Shipping developed on the Dnieper, Ob, Don, Yenisei. By the end of the century, there were already 2.5 thousand ships. Number of shipsincreased 10 times.
Trade under capitalism
The economic development of Russia in the post-reform period made it possible for the domestic market to take shape. Both production and consumption have acquired the final commodity character.
The main demand, of course, was for agricultural products, primarily bread. The country consumed 50% of its grain production. The rest went to the foreign market. Industrial products began to be bought not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore, oil, timber and other raw materials have also become high demand items.
The position on the world market was strengthening, but the main share of the exported goods still accounted for bread. But they imported not only luxurious, colonial products, as was the case at the beginning of the 19th century. Now cars, equipment, metals have become imports.
Banking
The socio-economic development of post-reform Russia has also changed financial relations. Finally, the State Bank was created, which received the right to print banknotes. The Ministry of Finance became the only manager of public funds.
Measures were taken to strengthen the ruble. A major role in this was played by the reform of 1897, which was carried out by the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte. Sergey Yulievich brought the ruble to the gold equivalent, which immediately increased its attractiveness on the world market.
A new credit system has developed, commercial banks have appeared. foreign capitalrevised his attitude to the business qualities of Russian entrepreneurs, and by the end of the century his participation reached 900 million rubles.
Social change in society
The social development of post-reform Russia, like all the considered areas, was distinguished by its originality. Society has retained the class division with clear opportunities and prohibitions for each layer. Life went to the fact that only two classes of capitalist society were to remain: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, but the old layers of the social system were also "entangled" in the Russian structure. That is why the social system of this period was distinguished by complexity and branching. It was attended by nobles, peasants, merchants, philistines, clergy, as well as the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Social strata of society
Nobles still enjoyed the support of the supreme power, held key positions, resolved state issues, and were leaders in public life. Autocracy, in turn, also relied on this stratum of the population. Some of the nobles, adapting to the new conditions, began to engage in industrial or financial activities.
The bourgeoisie class was formed from merchants, burghers, rich peasants. The layer grew quite quickly, was distinguished by business acumen and the ability to conduct business. Noticeable in solving economic problems, the bourgeoisie did not participate at all in the state and public life of the country. All her political views boiled down to the thought: "The Tsar-father knows better." And the tsar, in turn, provided her with the opportunity to exploit the workers.
Peasants remained in post-reform Russia the most numerous stratum of society. They had the hardest time getting used to the new rules of existence after the reform of 1861. They had the most miserable rights and the greatest restrictions in all areas of life.
United in communities, they could not develop independently, and the community, like chains, held back their growth. Slowly, capitalist relations nevertheless began to penetrate into the countryside, stratifying society into kulaks and the poor.
Birth of the proletariat
The greatest historical achievement of post-reform Russia, in short, was the emergence of the proletariat. The class was formed from the impoverished peasantry, from the urban poor.
The position of the working class in Russia also did not repeat the European options. Nowhere have there been such difficult working conditions as in our country. Living conditions were also the lowest, and there were no trade union organizations that could defend the interests of the worker.
Revolutionaries met with understanding in the ranks of the working people and directed hatred at the class that exploited them. In post-reform Russia, dissatisfaction with the rigid system was accumulating, which would spill over into popular unrest at the beginning of the 20th century.
