From the 16th century journalistic writings have come down to us, the author of which is Ivan Peresvetov, one of the outstanding minds of the era of Ivan the Terrible. At a time when dissent in the country was suppressed with particular cruelty, he had the courage to express ideas that ran counter to the official state ideology. Information about his life is very limited, the only source from which they were gleaned was his own writings, which preserved his name in the memory of posterity.
Serving in the ranks of mercenary troops
Peresvetov Ivan Semenovich was a native of Lithuanian lands and, having reached adulthood, became a professional military man. Of the two petitions he wrote addressed to Tsar Ivan the Terrible, it is known that at the end of the twenties of the 16th century he, together with a group of Polish nobles, served in the army of the Hungarian king Jan Zapol. Apparently, we are talking about mercenary service, so common in those days.
After fighting under the banner of Zapola for several years, Ivan joined the service of his opponent, the Czech monarch Ferdinand I of Habsburg. The reason for this was the change in the policy of the Polish king Sigismund I, subjectswhich was Ivan Peresvetov. After a short time, fate threw him into the army of the Moldavian ruler Peter IV, with whom he participated in several campaigns.
In the power of the boyar bureaucracy
Further in his petition, he reports that at the end of the thirties he came to the capital city of Moscow. Here he is instructed to set up the production of combat shields to supply the army, but this project was not implemented due to the fault of the boyars, who at that time constituted the ruling elite in the country. Either they arranged bureaucratic obstacles so dear to their hearts, or they simply plundered the money, but only Ivan Peresvetov remained out of work, and the valiant army - without shields.
Having found himself in Moscow and immediately faced with manifestations of uncontrolled boyar power that are detrimental to the state, he betrays a deep understanding of everything he saw and tries to look for ways to solve the problem. He sets out his thoughts on paper and submits them in the form of petitions to persons who ruled the country on behalf of the then-young Tsar Ivan IV. But the temporary workers who were in power at that time did not care about his thoughts, and the papers he submitted remained unanswered.
Criticism of the Moscow boyars
The petitions of Ivan Peresvetov of those years did not reach us, and even the very fact that they really existed was questioned for a long time. Only studies by scientists of the 20th century confirmed their authenticity. Today, historians have at their disposal the works of Peresvetov, written by him in a later period,when the young Ivan IV reached the age that allowed him to independently rule the country. This refers to the end of the forties of the XVI century. The literary heritage of the author includes two collections - complete and incomplete editions.
The main content in the works of Ivan Peresvetov one way or another boils down to sharp criticism of the higher boyars, exposing their unscrupulousness and moral decay, which resulted in lawlessness being committed everywhere. He contrasts them with "poor but brave warriors." That is, the service people, who constituted the true support of the state. The social and philosophical ideas of Ivan Peresvetov are in many respects close to the moods of the lowest stratum of feudal lords - the nobility. In them he expresses himself as the ideologist of the Moscow autocracy. The theme of the need for "terrible royal power" runs like a red thread through all his writings.
Opponent of enslavement and enslavement
However, in the works of Ivan Peresvetov, thoughts are often expressed that are incompatible with the basic principles of the political system of that era. A significant place in them is the condemnation of all forms of enslavement and enslavement of the lower strata of society. The author cites the biblical words as the main argument that all people, regardless of origin and nationality, are “children of Adam”, and therefore it is not appropriate for the strong to rule over the weak. In his opinion, any enslavement occurs at the instigation of the devil.
The ideas set forth in his writings were unusually bold and could not but arouse the ire of opponents. So,for example, Ivan Peresvetov argued that everyday truth and justice are higher than religious faith. Such a comparison turned a significant part of the clergy against him. Nevertheless, he explained the misfortunes of the Muscovite state precisely by the lack of truth, which he so boldly ex alted above all spiritual values.
Advice to the Sovereign
In his petitions sent to Ivan the Terrible at a time when he had already firmly taken power into his hands, Peresvetov takes the liberty of giving advice to the monarch on governing the country. How formidable the king found it necessary to be guided by them, became the subject of scientific disputes back in the 19th century. In particular, the famous historian Karamzin drew attention to the fact that much of what Peresvetov wrote was really reflected in the tsar's policy, but whether it was a coincidence or the monarch really did not disdain the thoughts of his subject remains a mystery.
This can be illustrated by the example of the conquest of the Kazan kingdom, carried out in 1552. The fact is that Peresvetov in his writings acted as an ardent supporter of the fight against the Tatars and really wrote about the need to take possession of their capital. But to assert that Ivan the Terrible launched a decisive campaign under the influence of his appeals would be somewhat reckless. The struggle with the Kazan kingdom was waged from the beginning of the 15th century, and its outcome was hardly the result of these petitions.
Also rather controversial is the role of Peresvetov in compiling the Code of Laws in 1550 - a set of state laws of Russia. The thought of having to create it oftenfound in petitions, but it was implemented by the sovereign in a slightly different way.
The philosophical ideas of Ivan Peresvetov about the equality of all people before God and the inadmissibility of enslavement went against the policy of the tsar, which was reflected in the Code of Laws, whose laws did not prohibit the enslavement of some people by others, but only regulated this process.
Boyar's son is an opponent of slavery
By the way, Peresvetov was not alone in his statements about the inadmissibility of turning free people into slaves. The name of another opponent of slavery, Matvey Bashkin, entered the history of Russia. This boyar son, declared a malicious heretic, did not preach compulsory service, but the performance of certain duties exclusively on a voluntary basis. In his fiefdom, he set free all the serfs, while destroying documents that testified to their subordinate and disenfranchised social status.
Variety of literary forms in Peresvetov's works
Literary monuments written by Ivan Peresvetov are very diverse in nature. If we talk about the Small and Large petitions mentioned above, then the first of them is really a petition - an appeal to the king in order to achieve a specific momentary result. In this case, it was a request for help in the production of shields for the army. If we turn to the Big Petition, it is easy to see that this is a document of a completely different order. Before us appears a detailed political treatise,pursuing far-reaching, strategic goals.
Completely different in their literary form are his works such as "The Tale of Magmet-S altan" and "The Tale of Tsar Constantine". At first glance, they have all the features of stories written in the epic style, but upon closer examination, it becomes clear that these are acute journalistic works aimed at eradicating the vices that existed in society, of which Ivan Peresvetov was an enemy. His ideas found an original and highly artistic expression in these stories. In many ways, they were ahead of their time.
The main content in the works of Ivan Peresvetov was to reflect reality and reveal its vices. It is in this vein that the author criticizes the Byzantine king Constantine, who became the culprit of the fact that the once powerful state, becoming the prey of greedy and dishonest courtiers, became exhausted and fell victim to Magmet-s altan. This clearly refers to Sultan Mohammed II, who captured Constantinople in 1453. It was a kind of warning about what the uncontrolled willfulness of its rulers leads the country to.
The end of life hidden in the ages
It remains unknown when and under what circumstances Ivan Peresvetov passed away. His biography practically does not contain specific information. One can only assume that he hardly ended his earthly journey in peace and quiet - he expressed too many seditious thoughts. Indirectly, thisconfirms the fact that in subsequent years the name of Peresvetov was hushed up in every possible way and for a long time was in oblivion. Such is the fate of all who are not afraid to tell the truth in the face of the powers that be.
