In the article we will consider the main linguistic categories, give examples. You will learn that in linguistics there are various associations by which one or another unit can be classified.
What is a category
The very concept of "category" was first developed by Aristotle. In particular, he identified 10 categories. Let us list them: undergoing, action, state, position, time, place, relation, quality, quantity, essence. In many ways, their selection influenced the subsequent inventory of various predicates, predicates, sentence members and parts of speech.
Concept category
Before considering linguistic categories and problems of linguistic categorization, it is necessary to clarify this term as well. It is usually understood as a certain closed system of meanings of a semantic universal attribute or a specific meaning of this attribute, regardless of the method of expression ("explicit" or "hidden") and the degree of their grammaticalization in a given language. For example, we can talk about the presencethe following conceptual categories: alienability / inalienability, activity / inactivity, causes, places, goals, etc. In linguistics, there are lexico-semantic linguistic categories. By them are meant classes such as the names of states, professions, living beings, etc. If a categorizing seme receives a derivational formal expression, linguistic categories are called derivational. Examples are as follows: diminutive names (pancake-chik, smoke-ok, house-ik), names of a figure (beg-un, cart-chik, teacher).
Linguistic categories in the broad and narrow senses
Language categories are associations that can be considered both in a broad and narrow sense. In the first case, these are any groups of elements that are distinguished on the basis of a common property. In a narrow sense, language categories are certain parameters (features) that underlie the division of homogeneous units into a certain number of non-overlapping classes. Their members are characterized by some value of this or that sign. Examples: the category of aspect, case, animation/inanimateness, deafness/voicedness, etc. However, this term often denotes one of the values of this parameter (attribute). Examples: the category of inanimate, accusative, state, deafness, perfective.
Types of categories according to various criteria
Depending on the nature of the corresponding feature and the set distinguished by it, as well as onrelation to the partition classes, different types of categories can be distinguished. A set may include phonemes that are homogeneous units. In this case, various phonological linguistic categories are distinguished. This is, for example, a distinction in deafness / sonority. Another example is the category of stop consonants. In this case, a classification is made according to a differential phonetic feature.
A set divided into categories may include two-sided units. Usually they are sentences, phrases and words. In this case, word-building, lexico-semantic, syntactic, grammatical and other categories are distinguished. Classification is carried out according to a certain semantic or syntactic feature. It can be both proper syntactic, semantic, and general categorical (this word is often understood as "referring to parts of speech").
Classifying and modifying features
Other signs stand out. In relation to partition classes, they are divided into classifying (selective, integral) and modifying (flexion, differential). An attribute for some object is modifying when it corresponds to an element of some other partition class, which differs from it only in the value of this attribute. This correspondence is called opposition. If this is not observed, the sign is classifying for the corresponding element. In what case can we speak of varieties of some more general unit that varies according to a givensign? Let's answer this question too. When the elements differ from each other only by the values of one or another modifying attribute. As for the classifier, its value is constant, fixed for a given unit.
Modifying and classifying categories
In a number of cases, for most elements of the set, the attribute is modifying. Then the category as a whole is also called modifying. For example, these are inflectional (inflectional) categories. These include the case and number of the noun, case, number, gender of the adjective, mood, tense, person, number of the gender of the verb. If for a sufficient number of elements the categorical attribute is classifying, then the category as a whole will be the same. For example, these are lexico-semantic categories. Examples: animacy, gender and parts of speech of a noun, transitivity/intransitivity, nominal classes of a verb, etc.
"Rules" and "Exceptions"
The type to which this or that category should be attributed depends on what classification of language units was originally, as well as on what is the "rule" for this or that class, and what can be called the "exception" ". For example, we can assume that in Russian for some classes of verbs the category of the form is inflectional (modifying), and for other classes it is word-forming (classifying). Or you can make one of these decisions for a whole class of verbs.tokens. Note that all of them are presented in Russian.
Offer categories
Studying the paradigmatic relations existing in syntax, many researchers use the concepts of "communicative-grammatical categories" or "categories of sentences". By them are meant the semantic differential features of certain sentences (syntactic modality, affirmation/negation, goal-setting of the statement). Less often, we can talk about individual values of these features (for example, the category of negation). A number of researchers, in particular, N. Yu. Shvedova, offers a different concept. They talk about phrase-changing categories. There are other concepts.
Grammar categories
Grammatic linguistic categories and their types are among the most studied and most important. Their characteristic features are the modifying type of the attribute taken as the basis, its involvement in syntax, the presence of a regular way in which it is expressed, as well as the “mandatory” choice for (word) forms belonging to a given set, one of its meanings. Grammatical categories are closed systems of meanings that exclude each other. They define a division into non-intersecting classes of a vast set of word forms. For example, grammatical meanings such as plural or singular form in their totality the category of number.
Text concept
Before considering the linguistic categories of the text, let's define the key concept. The text is an object of multidimensional study inlinguistics, however, in the specialized literature, this concept is still interpreted differently. There is also no generally accepted definition. Therefore, consider the one that is the most common.
The text is generally characterized as a product of people's specific activity (verbal-thinking). The latter can arise both in the process of indirect and direct communication, and in the process of human cognition of the surrounding reality.
Text as a linguistic category
Its units form components (structural elements), being expanded into a separate sentence or their groups. A sentence (texteme, phrase, statement) is the main element of the text. It is recognized and perceived as related to other sentences. That is, it is a component of the text, part of the whole. The sentence is its smallest communicative unit.
STS (SFU)
In the structure of the text, at the same time, sentences are sometimes combined into groups, which have received different names from different researchers. V. A. Bukhbinder, for example, calls them phrasal ensembles and phrasal units. N. S. Pospelov, A. P. Peshkovsky, S. G. Ilyenko, L. M. Loseva consider them complex syntactic integers (CTS). T. M. Nikolaeva, O. I. Moskalskaya, I. R. Galperin call them superphrasal unities (SFU). To designate a group of sentences related in meaning, SFU and STS are most often used. These are very complex structural units, which consist of at least twoindependent sentences that have semantic integrity in the context of coherent speech, and also act as part of a complete communication.
Free and strong offers
Note that not all sentences are combined into groups in the structure of the text. Free ones are also distinguished, which are not included in them, but are connected by semantic relations with a particular group. They contain comments, author's digressions. Such proposals act as a link between the STS, are the means by which a new micro-theme is designated.
Some researchers also highlight strong sentences in the text. They can be understood without knowing the content of others. Such offers are not included in the STS.
Communication blocs and larger associations
What other language categories of the text can be distinguished? Groups of sentences are combined into blocks of even larger parts. They are called in various studies either fragments or predicative-relative complexes. Another common name is communicative blocks.
Associations are even larger. They are associated with the following sections of text: chapter, part, paragraph, paragraph.
So, sentences and their groups are the main communicative elements of the text. All the rest perform, as a rule, a text-forming function. They are usually means of interfacial communication. Let's give a definition to this concept.
Interphase connection
It represents the link between STS, sentences, chapters,paragraphs and other parts of the text, which organizes its structural and semantic unity. At the same time, the semantic connection between individual sentences is provided with the help of lexical and grammatical means. It is most often a parallel or chain connection. The latter is implemented by repeating a member of the previous sentence in one form or another, deploying in the subsequent part of its structure. Proposals with parallel communication are not linked, but compared. In this case, the parallelism of constructions allows for opposition or comparison, depending on the corresponding lexical content.
Means for implementing various types of communication
With the help of the language, each type of connection is implemented. For example, particles, conjunctions, introductory words, etc. are used to connect parts of the text. Synonyms, syntactic repetitions, words with spatial and temporal meanings, pronouns, etc. are used to implement a chain connection between sentences in the SCS. parallelism in the construction of sentences. It is expressed in the use of verbs that have a common tense plan, anaphoric elements, the same word order, etc.
Linguistic categories of creolized texts
They are characterized by the same categories as the so-called classical verbal homogeneous texts. It is necessary to clarify the concept of "creolization". This is a combination of various symbolic meanssystems in a complex that meets the textuarity condition. Figurative components refer to the means by which the creolization of verbal texts is carried out. They have a significant impact on their interpretation and on all technical aspects related to the design of the text that affect their meaning. The following stand out among them: background, color and font of the text, punctuation, spelling, word formation, graphic design (in a column, in the form of a figure), printed iconic symbols (ideograms, pictograms), etc.
The text is thus a certain structure, where parts and individual sentences are interconnected. Linguistic and logical categories is a topic that can be covered for a very long time. We tried to highlight the most important, what every philologist needs to know.
