Scientific knowledge can be divided into two levels: theoretical and empirical. The first is based on inferences, the second is based on experiments and interaction with the object under study. Despite their different nature, these methods are equally important for the development of science.
Empirical Research
Empirical knowledge is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object he studies. It consists of experiments and observations. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are opposite - in the case of theoretical research, a person manages only his own ideas about the subject. As a rule, this method is the lot of the humanities.
Empirical research cannot do without instruments and instrumental installations. These are means related to the organization of observations and experiments, but in addition to them there are also conceptual means. They are used as a special scientific language. It has a complex organization. Empirical and theoretical knowledge is focused on the study of phenomena and the phenomena that arise between them.dependencies. By experimenting, man can discover an objective law. This is also facilitated by the study of phenomena and their correlation.
Empirical methods of cognition
According to the scientific view, empirical and theoretical knowledge consists of several methods. This is a set of steps necessary to solve a specific problem (in this case, we are talking about identifying previously unknown patterns). The first empirical method is observation. It is a purposeful study of objects, which primarily relies on various senses (perceptions, sensations, ideas).
At its initial stage, observation gives an idea of the external characteristics of the object of knowledge. However, the ultimate goal of this research method is to determine the deeper and inner properties of the subject. A common misconception is the idea that scientific observation is passive contemplation. Far from it.
Observation
Empirical observation is distinguished by its detailed character. It can be both direct and indirect by various technical devices and instruments (for example, a camera, telescope, microscope, etc.). As science advances, observation becomes more complex and complex. This method has several exceptional qualities: objectivity, certainty and unambiguous design. When using instruments, the interpretation of their readings plays an additional role.
On socialand the humanities, empirical and theoretical knowledge take root heterogeneously. Observation in these disciplines is particularly difficult. It becomes dependent on the personality of the researcher, his principles and attitudes, as well as the degree of interest in the subject.
Observation cannot be carried out without a certain concept or idea. It should be based on some hypothesis and record certain facts (in this case, only interconnected and representative facts will be indicative).
Theoretical and empirical studies differ from each other in details. For example, observation has its own specific functions that are not characteristic of other methods of cognition. First of all, it is providing a person with information, without which further research and hypotheses are impossible. Observation is the fuel on which thinking runs. Without new facts and impressions, there will be no new knowledge. In addition, it is with the help of observation that one can compare and verify the truth of the results of preliminary theoretical studies.
Experiment
Different theoretical and empirical methods of cognition also differ in the degree of their intervention in the process being studied. A person can observe him strictly from the outside, or he can analyze his properties from his own experience. This function is carried out by one of the empirical methods of cognition - experiment. In terms of importance and contribution to the final result of research, it is in no way inferior toobservation.
An experiment is not only a purposeful and active human intervention in the course of the process under study, but also its change, as well as reproduction in specially prepared conditions. This method of cognition requires much more effort than observation. During the experiment, the object of study is isolated from any extraneous influence. A clean and uncluttered environment is created. The experimental conditions are completely set and controlled. Therefore, this method, on the one hand, corresponds to the natural laws of nature, and on the other hand, it is distinguished by an artificial, human-defined essence.
Experimental structure
All theoretical and empirical methods have a certain ideological load. The experiment, which is carried out in several stages, is no exception. First of all, planning and step-by-step construction take place (the goal, means, type, etc. are determined). Then comes the experimentation stage. However, it takes place under the perfect control of a person. At the end of the active phase, it is the turn to interpret the results.
Empirical and theoretical knowledge is distinguished by a certain structure. In order for an experiment to take place, the experimenters themselves, the object of the experiment, instruments and other necessary equipment, a methodology and a hypothesis that is confirmed or refuted are required.
Instruments and installations
Every yearresearch is getting more and more difficult. They need more and more modern technology that allows them to study what is inaccessible to simple human senses. If earlier scientists were limited to their own sight and hearing, now they have at their disposal unprecedented experimental facilities.
During the use of the device, it may have a negative impact on the object under study. For this reason, the result of an experiment sometimes diverges from its original goals. Some researchers try to achieve such results on purpose. In science, this process is called randomization. If the experiment takes on a random character, then its consequences become an additional object of analysis. The possibility of randomization is another feature that distinguishes empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Comparison, description and measurement
Comparison is the third empirical method of cognition. This operation allows you to identify differences and similarities of objects. Empirical, theoretical analysis cannot be carried out without deep knowledge of the subject. In turn, many facts begin to play with new colors after the researcher compares them with another texture known to him. Comparison of objects is carried out within the framework of features that are essential for a particular experiment. At the same time, objects that are compared according to one feature may be incomparable in their other characteristics. This empirical technique is based on analogy. It underlies the comparative historical method, which is important for science.
Empirical andtheoretical knowledge can be combined with each other. But research is almost never complete without description. This cognitive operation fixes the results of the previous experience. Scientific notation systems are used for description: graphs, charts, drawings, charts, tables, etc.
The last empirical method of knowledge is measurement. It is carried out through special means. Measurement is necessary to determine the numerical value of the desired measured value. Such an operation must be carried out in accordance with strict algorithms and rules accepted in science.
Theoretical knowledge
In science, theoretical and empirical knowledge has different fundamental supports. In the first case, this is a detached use of rational methods and logical procedures, and in the second, direct interaction with the object. Theoretical knowledge uses intellectual abstractions. One of its most important methods is formalization - displaying knowledge in a symbolic and sign form.
At the first stage of expressing thinking, familiar human language is used. It is characterized by complexity and constant variability, which is why it cannot be a universal scientific tool. The next stage of formalization is connected with the creation of formalized (artificial) languages. They have a specific purpose - a strict and precise expression of knowledge that cannot be achieved using natural speech. Such a symbol system can take the format of formulas. He is very popular in mathematicsand other exact sciences where numbers cannot be dispensed with.
With the help of symbols, a person eliminates the ambiguous understanding of the record, makes it shorter and clearer for further use. Not a single research, and therefore all scientific knowledge, can do without speed and simplicity in the application of its tools. Empirical and theoretical study equally needs formalization, but it is at the theoretical level that it takes on an exceptionally important and fundamental significance.
Artificial language, created within a narrow scientific framework, is becoming a universal means of exchanging thoughts and communicating specialists. This is the fundamental task of methodology and logic. These sciences are necessary to convey information in an understandable, systematic way, free from the shortcomings of natural language.
Formalization value
Formalization allows you to clarify, analyze, clarify and define concepts. The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge cannot do without them, so the system of artificial symbols has always played and will continue to play a big role in science. Common and colloquial concepts seem obvious and clear. However, due to their ambiguity and uncertainty, they are not suitable for scientific research.
Formalization is especially important in the analysis of alleged evidence. The sequence of formulas based on specialized rules is distinguished by the precision and rigor necessary for science. In addition, the formalizationnecessary for programming, algorithmization and computerization of knowledge.
Axiomatic method
Another method of theoretical research is the axiomatic method. It is a convenient way of deductively expressing scientific hypotheses. Theoretical and empirical sciences cannot be imagined without terms. Very often they arise due to the construction of axioms. For example, in Euclidean geometry, the fundamental terms of angle, line, point, plane, etc. were formulated at one time.
Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, scientists formulate axioms - postulates that do not require proof and are the initial statements for further construction of theories. An example of this is the idea that the whole is always greater than the part. With the help of axioms, a system for deriving new terms is built. Following the rules of theoretical knowledge, a scientist can obtain unique theorems from a limited number of postulates. At the same time, the axiomatic method is much more effective for teaching and classifying than for discovering new patterns.
Hypothetical-deductive method
Although theoretical, empirical scientific methods differ from each other, they are often used together. An example of such an application is the hypothetical-deductive method. With it, new systems of closely intertwined hypotheses are built. On their basis, new statements concerning empirical, experimentally proven facts are derived. The method of deriving a conclusion from archaichypotheses is called deduction. This term is familiar to many thanks to the novels about Sherlock Holmes. Indeed, a popular literary character in his investigations often uses the deductive method, with the help of which he builds a coherent picture of a crime from a multitude of disparate facts.
Science has the same system. This method of theoretical knowledge has its own clear structure. First of all, there is an acquaintance with the invoice. Then assumptions are made about the patterns and causes of the phenomenon under study. To do this, various logical techniques are used. Guesses are evaluated according to their probability (the most probable one is selected from this heap). All hypotheses are checked for consistency with logic and compatibility with basic scientific principles (for example, the laws of physics). Consequences are derived from the assumption, which are then verified by experiment. The hypothetical-deductive method is not so much a method of a new discovery as a method of substantiating scientific knowledge. This theoretical tool was used by such great minds as Newton and Galileo.
