Language is a unique phenomenon if only because it is the only scientific phenomenon that describes itself. In addition, its nature is very complex, which gives rise to many scientific approaches, various theories and ways of describing the essence of the language.
Modern linguistics recognizes language as a complex sign system.
System approach
The systemic approach as a methodological requirement entered linguistics thanks to the works of F. de Saussure. A system is usually understood as a unity of homogeneous interconnected elements. But the language unites units of different orders, and therefore it is recognized as a complex structure, which interacts with each other subsystems of individual tiers of the language structure. These tiers form the levels of the language system. A significant characteristic of system relations in a language is their hierarchy: the units of each subsequent tier consist of the units of the previous one.
The concept of language level
Each tier of language is essentiallysystem, as it is formed by elements entering into certain relationships.
The names of the levels of the language system correspond to the traditionally distinguished sections of the language:
- phonetics (phonetic level);
- morphemic (morphemic level);
- lexicon (lexical level);
- syntax (syntax level).
Within each circle of the language structure, it is customary to single out its constituent components - units. At the phonetic level, these are phonemes, at the morphemic level - morphemes, etc. The homogeneity of the units of each tier is relative, since the language exists in two material forms - oral and written.
The selection of language levels is the result of the analytical articulation of the language, and not the stages of its development.
So, the language level is understood as a tier (subsystem) of the general language system, characterized by the presence of specific units that function according to certain rules and laws.
Let's consider the main language levels in more detail.
Phonetics
The phonetic language level describes the sound composition of speech. The central component of this tier is the phoneme (sound). This is the ultimate, that is, further indivisible, unit of the language.
The dual nature of the language determines that graphics, which study the ways of transmitting sounds in writing, adjoin phonetics. The graphic unit is a letter.
Despite the fact that phonetics is the basic, initial tier of the language system, this is a rather extensive and complex section. In the school course of the Russian languageit is presented in an extremely truncated form.
Phonetics explores the sounds of speech in terms of the method and place of articulation, their compatibility and acoustic characteristics, positional changes in sounds in the flow of speech, intonation and stress.
By the way, about stress: it is traditionally customary to attribute orthoepy to the phonetic level of the language. But this is not the only point of view, since this section of linguistics regulates the rules for pronunciation of words, and this is already the lexical level of the language. Orthoepy is not the only section in the language that can be attributed to different levels. Sometimes in such cases one speaks of a transitional, or adjacent, sublevel.
Morfemics
This language level is dedicated to the morphemic composition (structure) of the language, its unit is the morpheme. It is customary to call it the minimum meaningful unit, since the semantics of the word is contained in the root, and the root is a morpheme. In addition, a significant number of affixes in Russian are significant. For example, with the help of the suffix -tel, they form nouns that name the one who performs or performs an action: a teacher, a driver, an educator. Thus, the formation of meaning occurs precisely at this level of the language, at the previous level there is no category of meaning.
The following morphemes are distinguished in Russian:
- root;
- base;
- affixes.
Affixes include prefix (prefix), suffix, inflection (ending), postfix (affix after the ending) and interfix (connecting vowels).
To morphemicsword formation adjoins, but it is a transitional section, a kind of bridge from morphemic to vocabulary.
Vocabulary
The lexical language level describes the vocabulary of a language from different positions. The basic unit of the level is a lexeme (word). The structure of this tier is very heterogeneous. Depending on which side of the word is considered, we can talk about the following sections of the language that function at the lexical level:
- etymology - studies the origin of words;
- semantics - explores the subject-conceptual meaning of the word;
- morphology - considers the word in terms of its belonging to a particular part of speech;
- lexicography - describes the rules and principles of compiling dictionaries;
- onomasiology - looks at the naming process;
- onomastics - studies proper names.
Sometimes phraseology and spelling are included in the same tier. The latter is more often associated with graphics and considered at the first of the described levels.
Various relationships that words enter into are also considered at the level of vocabulary: synonymy, paronymy, antonymy, homonymy.
Syntax
The syntactic language level examines phrases and sentences, as well as the rules for their construction. Accordingly, the units of syntax are phrases and sentences. Sometimes they include a complex syntactic whole and text. The concept of sentence members is also an attribute of syntax.
There isdescriptive syntax and historical, constructive and communicative, general and specific, etc.
The syntax is accompanied by punctuation, which regulates the rules for punctuation marks.
The generally accepted approach to the allocation of language levels assumes that syntax is the final tier of the language structure. The presented classification of language levels is traditional, but not the only one in linguistics.
Text
Text is not considered to be a language unit, it is considered as a speech product. In the works of some linguists, text is opposed to language on the basis of the opposite principles of their internal organization. Moreover, it is indicated that the text has its own system and units. But it does not stand out in a separate level either.
Currently, linguists are still trying to develop a synthetic approach that would allow us to consider the text as both a product of speech and a unit of language. This would allow the text as a conceptual category to take a more definite place in the system of language levels.
Competent approach
The language level of speech is reflected in the formation of language competence. Its components partly echo the levels of the language structure:
- Phonetic. It assumes knowledge of phonemes, their acoustic and articulatory characteristics, features of intonational and rhythmic organization of speech, possession of orthoepic norms.
- Lexical. Isin the characteristics of the vocabulary, including the possession of phraseology, knowledge of proverbs and sayings, the use of synonymous language features, etc.
- Semantic. It is expressed in the knowledge of the meanings of words and expressions and the ability to correctly select and use lexical means in accordance with the communicative task.
- Grammatical. It implies knowledge of the grammatical norms of the language, including the ability to correctly build sentences, taking into account syntactic patterns and word combination rules.
- Spelling. Assumes knowledge of the rules of graphic design of written speech, including spelling rules. This also includes the ability to use a dictionary.
Learning a foreign language
When learning a foreign language, the following levels of language knowledge are distinguished:
- initial (A1);
- elementary (A2);
- first middle (B1);
- medium (B1+);
- above average (B2);
- advanced (С1);
- fluency (C2).
This scale is the generally accepted European system.
System of language proficiency levels
The first level is also called the level of survival. It assumes that you can, while listening and reading, recognize certain familiar words and expressions, be able to introduce yourself, fill out a registration card or a greeting card, and also maintain a simple conversation on a familiar topic (place of residence, relatives and acquaintances), but only if if the interlocutor's speech sounds slow and distinct, it may berepeated if necessary. Also involves the ability to ask and answer basic questions.
The second level assumes that you are able to read a short text, write a short letter, note or message, maintain communication in a typical situation on an everyday or well-known topic, are able to recognize phrases and expressions in sounding speech, but to participate in dialogue, you still need a slow pace of speech of the interlocutor and clear articulation.
The third level means that you can write a coherent text, reflecting your emotions and impressions, and also know the language material in the framework of professional and everyday communication, are able to maintain a dialogue on common and familiar topics even without a special agreement with the interlocutor about the need emphasized clear pronunciation.
The fourth level involves expanding the range of topics on which you can speak freely, the absence of difficulties in communication, the ability to verbally and in writing state and justify your point of view on a particular problem.
The fifth level means that you can easily understand everything that is broadcast on TV, listen to lectures and reports, create detailed argumentative texts, read fiction without resorting to a dictionary.
The sixth level is free communication at a fast pace on professional and scientific topics, the ability to distinguish between stylistic shades, the ability to study not only fiction, but also special literature, including technicalinstructions, the ability to create voluminous and complex texts.
The seventh level is fluency in all aspects.
