Ancient Mesopotamia became the area where one of the most ancient models of organizing power within a single city was historically tested for the first time, and the Sumerian states can be considered the oldest example of a relatively centralized political unification. The history of this people, who in the documents called themselves "blackheads", covers a significant period of time: from the 6th to the 3rd millennium BC. e. But the last date did not become a milestone in their existence: the Sumerians had a significant impact on the formation of further types of statehood, such as the Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian empires.
Sumerians: hypotheses and assumptions
We should start with who the mysterious sag-gig-ga from ancient clay tablets are. The history of the Sumerian city-states from the 5th grade becomes known to everyone, but the school history textbook, for obvious reasons, is silent about the fact that the "Sumerians" people do not exist in principle. The ancient scribes called the ethnonym sag-gig-ga both their compatriots and neighboringpeoples.
The very name "Sumer" as a designation of the common territory of ancient state associations, as well as the conditional name of the ethnic groups that created them, appeared due to a number of assumptions. The rulers of Assyria, which arose many centuries later, proudly called themselves the kings of Sumer and Akkad. Since it was already known that the Semitic population of Mesopotamia used the Akkadian language, it was assumed that the Sumerians were the same non-Semitic peoples who organized the oldest state associations in this territory.
Linguistics very often comes to the aid of historians. Thanks to tracking changes in the language that occur according to certain rules, it is possible to establish the ancestor language and at least draw a trajectory of the movements of a particular people with a dotted line. The Sumerian language has been deciphered, but the study of the texts left by its speakers has given us a new problem: the dialect of "blackheads" has no connection with the known ancient languages. The problem is complicated by the fact that the Sumerian language was deciphered through Akkadian glosses, and it was possible to read Akkadian texts thanks to translations from it into ancient Greek. Therefore, the reconstructed Sumerian language may differ significantly from the real one.
The "blackheads" themselves did not say anything about their ancestral home. Only confusing texts have come down to us, which speak of the existence of a certain island, which the Sumerians left due to some problems. There is now a bold theory that the Sumerian islandexisted on the territory of the modern Persian Gulf and was flooded as a result of the movement of tectonic plates, however, it is not possible to prove or disprove this hypothesis.
Ancient Mesopotamia
Not too much is known about the predecessors of the Sumerians in this territory: the Subarei tribes. However, the presence of various human societies here at such a distant time indicates that Ancient Mesopotamia has long been an attractive region for life.
The main we alth of this territory was made up of two large rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates, thanks to which the very name Mesopotamia arose (the Russified version is Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia). The Subareans did not master the technique of irrigated agriculture, so they failed to create any developed system of statehood. The researchers firmly established that it was the hard work of creating an irrigation system that contributed to the decomposition of the tribal system and the emergence of the first slave-owning states.
The emergence of centralized associations in Ancient Egypt and the Sumerian city-states in the list of topics belonging to the problematic field of modern Oriental studies, occupies a special place. The example of these two regions especially clearly shows how important the geographical position was. The Egyptians were completely dependent on the floods of the Nile and were forced to concentrate their efforts on the construction of canals to irrigate fields in dry times, due to which the degree of centralization became extremely high, and one of the oldest empires in the world arose in North Africa. Beforethe population of Mesopotamia had no such problems, so the tribal associations, on the basis of which the ancient Sumerian city-states subsequently arose, were local, and the development of agriculture stopped at a primitive, in comparison with the Egyptian level.
The rest of Mesopotamia did not differ in special riches. There was not even such an elementary building material as stone. Instead, a mixture of clay and natural asph alt was used. The flora was represented mainly by cereals (wheat, barley). In addition, date palms and sesame were cultivated. Among the main occupations of the inhabitants of the Sumerian city-states was cattle breeding: in the northern regions of Mesopotamia, wild goats and sheep were tamed, and in the southern regions, pigs.
The emergence of state associations in Mesopotamia approximately coincides in time with the transition to the Bronze Age, and soon the Iron Age. But archaeologists have not found a large number of metal products in the region. Only meteoric metals were available to its ancient population, while there were no significant deposits of iron and copper in Mesopotamia. This very quickly made the ancient Sumerian city-states dependent on imported metal, which contributed to the development of statehood.
The collapse of tribal communities and the emergence of slavery
In the existing natural and climatic conditions, the Sumerian city-states were inevitably interested in increasing the profitability of agriculture. Insofar asthe lack of metals and their high cost prevented the improvement of tools, the Sumerians needed other ways to increase the output. This problem was solved in one of the most obvious ways: the introduction of slave labor.
The emergence of slavery in the Sumerian city-states in the list of topics relating to the history of the Ancient World, occupies a special place. Although, as in other ancient Eastern societies, most of the slaves entered the slave market due to various wars, the oldest Sumerian codes already allow the father of the family to sell his children into slavery. Daughters were especially often sold: they were not considered particularly useful in agriculture.
Developing slavery undermined the patriarchal tribal structure. The surplus product obtained through agriculture and animal husbandry was unevenly distributed. On the one hand, this led to the separation of the nobility, from whose midst the first kings of the Sumerian city-states came, and on the other hand, to the impoverishment of ordinary community members. The very sale of family members into slavery was due not only to the need to receive grain for sowing or just food, but was also required to regulate the size of the family.
New statehood
The topic of the Sumerian city-states is interesting from the standpoint of their organization. The differences between Sumerian agriculture and ancient Egyptian agriculture have already been noted above. One of the main consequences of these differences is the absence of the need for rigid centralization. But almost the best climatic conditions existed in Ancient India. Sumerian city-statesthe list of topics related to the development of ancient Eastern statehood, again occupy a special place.
The Sumerians, unlike the peoples who succeeded them, did not create a centralized empire. One of the possible explanations for this is the autarchy of ancient tribal associations. Their members worked only for themselves and did not need contacts with neighboring tribal unions. All subsequent state associations of Sumer arose precisely within the boundaries of a tribe or tribal union.
The following fact draws attention: the population density in Mesopotamia during the period under review was so high that the distance from one proto-state center to another sometimes did not even exceed thirty kilometers. This suggests that there were a huge number of such pre-state associations. The subsistence economy flourishing in them did not bring predominance to any of the ancient Sumerian city-states. The conflicts that arose between them ended only in the deportation of part of the population into slavery, but did not aim at the complete subordination of one to the other.
All this became the reason for the emergence of a new statehood in Mesopotamia. The word "nom" itself is of Greek origin. It was used in the administrative division of Ancient Greece. Subsequently, it was transferred to the realities of Ancient Egypt, and then to Sumer. In the context of the history of the Sumerian city-states, the term "nom" denotes an independent and closed city with an adjacent district.
By the end of the Sumerian period (line III-IImillennium BC. e.) there were about one and a half hundred such associations, which were in a state of relative equilibrium.
The main nomes of Sumer
The city-states located near rivers became the most important for the subsequent evolution of statehood. From the 5th grade, the history of the ancient Sumerian associations becomes known from such as Kish, Ur and Uruk. The first was founded at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. near the junction of the Euphrates and Irnina rivers. At the same time, another well-known city-state rises, which existed until the 4th century BC. e. – Ur. It was located directly at the mouth of the Euphrates. The first settlements on the site of the future Ur appeared two thousand years earlier. The reasons for such an early settlement of this place include not only the obvious favorable conditions for agriculture. From the current name of the area - Tell el-Mukayyar, which translates as "bituminous hill" - it is clear that there was an abundance of natural asph alt, the main building material in Sumer.
The first settlement in Southern Mesopotamia to have its own walls is Uruk. As in the case of the already mentioned Sumerian city-states, its rise dates back to the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. The favorable location in the Euphrates Valley allowed Uruk to very quickly declare its claims to leadership in the region.
Besides Kish, Ur and Uruk, there were other city-states in Ancient Mesopotamia:
- Eshnunna, built in the valley of the Diyala River.
- Shurpak in the Euphrates Valley.
- Nippur, located nearby.
- Larak, located between large channels branching off from the Tigris.
- Adab in the upper reaches of the Inturungal River.
- Sippar, built where the Euphrates splits into two arms.
- Ashur in the region of the middle Tigris.
The degree of influence of these city-states on the county varied. By the end of the Sumerian period, Nippur emerged as the cult center of the "blackheads", since the main sanctuary of Enlil, the supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, was located there. However, this did not make the city a political center. To a greater extent, Kish and Uruk claimed this role.
The Flood and political realities
Everyone is familiar with the biblical legend about God's wrath at the people who rejected his commandments and the flood sent by him, in which only the family of the righteous Noah and the plants and animals saved on his ark survived. Now there is no doubt that this legend has Sumerian roots.
Sources recorded increased floods at the turn of the XXX-XXIX centuries. BC e. Their presence was also proven by archaeological data: scientists have discovered river sediments related to that era. The situation was so critical that many ancient nomes fell into disrepair, which subsequently allowed both priests and folk storytellers to create a story about general ruin and mass death of people. But the natural cataclysm that happened to Sumer is interesting not only as proof of the reflection of reality in the ancient epic. One of its consequences was the violation of the state of equilibriumin the region.
Firstly, the weakened Sumer became easy prey for the Semitic tribes that penetrated the region from the south and east. Their appearance in the Sumerian territories was observed before, but before it was more peaceful, and, as already mentioned, the Sumerians did not make any special distinctions between themselves and foreigners. Such openness eventually led to the disappearance of the Sumerian civilization and the massive borrowing of their achievements by alien tribes.
Obviously, the Semites managed to gain a foothold in the largest Sumerian city-states. The climate after the flood changed significantly, agricultural products were no longer enough to ensure the livelihoods of independent communities. The need to defend against invasions significantly accelerated the evolution of forms of state power: in the largest nomes, lugals, who are often called "tsars" in the Russian historical tradition, are put forward in the first roles.
The rivalry between Kish and Uruk was the most fierce. Their echoes have come down to us in the ancient epic. In particular, the lugal of Uruk, Gilgamesh, became the central hero of a number of Sumerian legends. He was credited with a duel with a certain dangerous demon, a search for the herb of immortality, and a personal meeting with the only person who survived after the flood, Utnapishtim. The latter is especially interesting, since it allows one to speculate about Gilgamesh as the heir to the Sumerian traditions of statehood. This hypothesis becomes even more interesting in the light of the legends that tell about Gilgamesh being in slavery to the lugal Kish named Aga. However, to check the theories based on fragments of ancient legendsalmost impossible.
Crisis of the Sumerian civilization
The title of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian looks somewhat pessimistic: Ša nagba imuru – "About the one who has seen everything". There is some reason to believe that the name was translated from the Sumerian language. If such a theory is correct, then the highest literary achievement of the most ancient civilization reflects the eschatological moods that have gripped societies. This is in stark contrast to the flood legends, which explicitly suggest a post-crisis heyday.
The new millennium, which began after the battles of Gilgamesh with numerous enemies, brought new problems to the Sumerians. The once favorable climatic conditions of the Sumerian city-states made possible their flourishing. Since the beginning of the 2nd millennium, they, albeit indirectly, hastened the death of their founders: Sumer is increasingly becoming an object for expansion.
The power of the lugals, increasingly acquiring despotic features, turned self-sufficient communities into a source of labor. Endless wars demanded more and more soldiers and absorbed most of the surplus product. In the process of fighting for hegemony, the Sumerian city-states mutually weakened each other, which made them easy prey for enemies. The Semites became especially dangerous, in particular, the Assyrians settled in Assur and the Akkadians who subjugated the central regions of Mesopotamia.
The Sumerian city-states known from history, such as Kish, Ur and Uruk, are gradually losing their former importance. On thenew powerful nomes come to the fore: Marad, Dilbat, Push and, the most famous of them, Babylon. However, the invaders had to withstand the attacks of new peoples who wanted to gain a foothold on the fertile lands of Mesopotamia. The ruler of Akkad, Sargon, for some time managed to consolidate the lands that fell under his rule, but after his death, the power he created did not withstand the onslaught of numerous nomadic tribes, which are called "manda peoples" in the sources. They are replaced by the Gutians, who soon subjugated Southern Mesopotamia. The north of the region came under the rule of the Hurrians.
Behind all these wars and devastating raids, the name of the Sumerians is gradually disappearing from the sources. Representatives of the most ancient civilization gradually merge with alien peoples, borrowing their traditions and even language. At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. Semitic in origin, the Akkadian language displaces the Sumerian dialect from colloquial speech. It is used only in cult activities and for writing down legislative codes (for example, the laws of Shulgi). However, the unified grammar and the general nature of the records made allow us to say that Sumerian was no longer a native language for scribes, but a learned language. Thus, Sumerian performs the same function for the new population of Mesopotamia that Latin performed for Europeans.
The end of the Sumerian civilization
The last attempt to preserve the Sumerian civilization dates back to the 22nd century BC. e. In the system of nome statehood, ancient Ur again came to the fore, in which kings from the III dynasty ruled. They are in every possible waypatronized the Sumerian culture: hence the persistent attempts to find a use for an essentially already dead language. But it should be noted that the patronage of the Sumerians was rather declarative and was caused by purely political needs: the III dynasty had not only to withstand attacks from its neighbors, but also to deal with the discontent of the social lower classes. Formally supporting the Sumerian culture and signs of attention in the form of fixing the laws in the Sumerian language (it must be borne in mind that in ancient civilizations the attitude to the word was special: any text certainly seemed sacred), the kings did not interfere with the Semitization of the population.
However, even declarative support for some time allowed the remnants of a once great civilization to exist. During the reign of Ibbi-Suen (2028 - 2004 BC), the onslaught of the West Semitic tribe of the Amorites, who acted in alliance with Khutran-tempti (2010-1990 BC), the king of the then powerful state of Elam, intensified. The last representative of the dynasty tried in vain to resist the invaders. In 2004 BC. e. Ur was captured and subjected to a terrible rout that lasted at least six years. This was the final blow to the Sumerian civilization. With the establishment of a new regime in Ur, they finally disappear from the historical scene.
It is assumed that the Sumerians showed themselves a little later again: in the II millennium BC. e. the Sumerian ethnic substratum, having mixed with the Akkadian and a number of other ethnic groups, gave rise to the existence of the Babylonian people.
The results of the existence of city-states in Mesopotamia
Sumerian civilization did not disappear without a trace. Not only epic and mythology or monumental architectural structures have survived to this day. Within the framework of the Sumerian civilization, discoveries were made and knowledge was obtained that is used by modern people. The most famous example is the idea of time. The successors of the Sumerians in the territory of Ancient Mesopotamia retained the accepted sexagesimal number system. Because of this, we still divide an hour into sixty minutes, and a minute into sixty seconds. The tradition of dividing the day into 24 hours and the year into 365 days was also preserved from the Sumerians. The Sumerian lunisolar calendar has also survived, although it has undergone significant changes.
However, these are remote consequences. In the immediate historical perspective, the Sumerian civilization left its successors a new statehood, determined by the special natural conditions of the Sumerian city-states. Despite the attempts of one or another city-state to achieve complete hegemony in the territory of Mesopotamia, with the exception of short-term success, no one has managed to do this. Babylon and Assyria at different times extended their power over vast territories, and Ur, under Sargon, managed to subjugate a territory of such magnitude that it was possible to surpass this only one and a half thousand years later, the Persians under the Achaemenid dynasty. But the result of the existence of these gigantic empires was invariably a protracted crisis and collapse.
The most obvious reason why every time the big states in Mesopotamia broke up on conditionalThe lines that determine where the Sumerian city-state is located, taken as a separate socio-political structure, lies precisely in their extraordinary stability. It has already been noted above that the struggle for hegemony in the region was caused by an unusually destructive natural cataclysm and the ensuing invasion of the Semitic tribes. Those came with their own idea of statehood, while in Sumer there was already a system of self-sufficient state formations, tested and tempered for four thousand years. Even having necessarily joined the political struggle at the last stage of their existence, the Sumerians, as follows from the sources, in their clearly downgraded position in society, clearly understood the compulsion of their participation in wars.
Here any historian enters into the realm of hypotheses and assumptions. But the whole history of ancient Sumer is woven from them, and this article began with hypotheses. The appearance on the territory of Mesopotamia of tribes and tribal associations, whose origin is still impossible to establish even at a hypothetical level, after several thousand years of the existence of a special type of statehood, ended in the same disappearance into obscurity. The mystery surrounding the beginning and end of the history of the Sumerian civilization has become the basis of much modern speculation. Of particular interest is the figure of Etana, king of Kish, who, according to legend, somehow ascended to heaven. Modern "researchers" are happy to use these words to prove that no Sumerians existed at all, butall places of worship were created either by aliens or similar creatures.
Instead of these nonsense, it is much more reasonable to turn to a fact from the life of the ancient Sumerians, which has already been mentioned here many times: these people, wherever they came from, could not stand out. They simply existed within the framework of their tribal associations, cultivated the land - not too diligently - accumulated knowledge about the world and, sadly, did not care about tomorrow. After all, perhaps the memory of the global flood was preserved not so much because it was so destructive - the floods of the two large rivers that formed Mesopotamia were hardly a rare occurrence, but because it became unexpected. Of course, one should not see in the ancient Sumerians some kind of sybarites, unable to resist the catastrophe, but their whole history seems to indicate the most ordinary unwillingness to resist this event.
Digressing from philosophical reflections on the first real civilization on earth, the following should be noted: the nome statehood, being an invention of the ancient Sumerians, belongs not only to them. Under a different name, this strategy was tested by another great civilization of antiquity, also engaged in the search for knowledge. Under the name of numerous policies, the nomes seemed to be reborn in ancient Greece. It is difficult to refrain from parallels: just as the Sumerians assimilated with the Semites, losing their culture to them, so the ancient Greeks, having significantly raised the cultural level of the Romans, left the historical stage. But, unlike the Sumerians, not forever.
Sumeriancivilization in modern secondary education
Cultural and historical communities of the Ancient World are the first civilizations that a student in the 5th grade meets. Sumerian city-states in the history of the Ancient East represent a special section in modern textbooks. Since the student is not yet able to master the main problems of this topic, it is considered in the most exciting way: literary versions of episodes from the epic are given, initial information about the political organization is reported. As practice shows, the assimilation of initial historical knowledge is greatly facilitated with the help of tables, maps and illustrations on the topic "Sumerian city-states".
Various assessments are an important element of schooling. In 2017, a decision was made to conduct All-Russian Verification Works (VPR). The Sumerian city-states are one of the topics tested during the assessment.
Since knowledge of dates and a huge list of kings of various nomes is not obligatory for a student, the testing primarily focuses on the assimilation of cultural knowledge. In the proposed sample VPR in history for grade 5, the Sumerian city-states are one of the main topics to be checked, but the most difficult thing for the student is to determine whether this or that architectural and sculptural monument belongs to the Sumerians. Most of the proposed questions aim to identify the student's ability to express their thoughts on the topic, to analyze heterogeneous elements in order to find common features in them,and also to separate the main information from the secondary. Thus, the topic "Sumerian city-states" in the VPR for grade 5 will not cause any special problems for schoolchildren.
