The Westphalian system is the order of international politics established in Europe in the 17th century. It laid the foundations of modern relations between countries and gave impetus to the formation of new nation-states.
Background to the Thirty Years' War
The Westphalian system of international relations was formed as a result of the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648, during which the foundation of the previous world order was destroyed. Almost all the states of Europe were drawn into this conflict, but it was based on the confrontation between the Protestant monarchs of Germany and the Catholic Holy Roman Empire, supported by another part of the German princes. At the end of the 16th century, the rapprochement of the Austrian and Spanish branches of the House of Habsburg created the prerequisites for the restoration of the empire of Charles V. But the independence of the German Protestant feudal lords was an obstacle to this,approved by the Peace of Augsburg. In 1608, these monarchs created the Protestant Union, supported by England and France. In opposition to it, in 1609, the Catholic League was created - an ally of Spain and the Pope.
The course of hostilities 1618-1648
After the Habsburgs increase their influence in the Czech Republic, which actually leads to the violation of the rights of Protestants, an uprising breaks out in the country. With the support of the Protestant Union, a new king was elected in the country - Frederick of the Palatinate. From this moment begins the first period of the war - Czech. It is characterized by the defeat of the Protestant troops, the confiscation of the king's lands, the transfer of the Upper Palatinate under the rule of Bavaria, as well as the restoration of Catholicism in the state.
The second period is Danish, which is characterized by the intervention of neighboring countries in the course of hostilities. Denmark was the first to enter the war with the aim of capturing the B altic coast. During this period, the troops of the anti-Habsburg coalition suffer significant defeats from the Catholic League, and Denmark is forced to withdraw from the war. With the invasion of Northern Germany by the troops of King Gustav, the Swedish campaign begins. The radical change begins at the last stage - the French-Swedish.
Peace of Westphalia
After the entry of France into the war, the advantage of the Protestant Union became obvious, this led to the need to seek a compromise between the parties. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded, which consisted of two treaties prepared at the congresses in Münster and Osnabrück. He fixed a newthe balance of power in the world and sanctioned the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire into independent states (more than 300).
In addition, since the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the main form of political organization of society has become "state - nation", and the dominant principle of international relations - the sovereignty of countries. The religious aspect in the agreement was considered as follows: in Germany, the equalization of the rights of Calvinists, Lutherans and Catholics took place.
Westphalian system of international relations
Its main principles began to look like this:
1. The form of political organization of society is the nation state.
2. Geopolitical inequality: a clear hierarchy of powers - from powerful to weaker.
3. The main principle of relations in the world is the sovereignty of nation-states.
4. Political equilibrium system.
5. The state is obliged to smooth out economic conflicts between its subjects.
6. Non-intervention of countries in each other's internal affairs.
7. Clear organization of stable borders between European states.
8. non-global character. Initially, the rules that the Westphalian system established were valid only in Europe. Over time, they were joined by Eastern Europe, North America and the Mediterranean.
The new system of international relations marked the beginning of globalization and cultural integration, marked the end of the isolation of individual states. In addition, its establishmentled to the rapid development of capitalist relations in Europe.
Development of the Westphalian system. Stage 1
The multipolarity of the Westphalian system is clearly visible, as a result of which none of the states could achieve absolute hegemony, and the main struggle for political advantage was between France, England and the Netherlands. During the reign of the "sun king" Louis XIV France intensifies its foreign policy. It was characterized by the intention to gain new territories and constant interference in the affairs of neighboring countries.
In 1688, the so-called Grand Alliance was created, the main position in which was occupied by the Netherlands and England. This union directed its activities to reduce the influence of France in the world. A little later, the Netherlands and England were joined by other rivals of Louis XIV - Savoy, Spain and Sweden. They created the Augsburg League. As a result of the wars, one of the main principles proclaimed by the Westphalian system was restored - political balance in international relations.
Evolution of the Westphalian system. Stage 2
The influence of Prussia is growing. This country, located in the heart of Europe, entered the struggle for the consolidation of German territories. If the plans of Prussia were realized, it could undermine the foundations on which the Westphalian system of international relations was based. At the initiative of Prussia, the Seven Years' War and the Austrian Heritage War were unleashed. Both conflicts undermined the principles of peaceful regulation,formed after the end of the Thirty Years' War. In addition to the strengthening of Prussia, Russia's role in the world increased. This was illustrated by the Russian-Swedish war.
In general, with the end of the Seven Years' War, a new period begins, into which the Westphalian system entered.
3rd stage of the existence of the Westphalian system
After the French Revolution, the process of formation of national countries begins. During this period, the state acts as a guarantor of the rights of its subjects, the theory of "political legitimacy" is being affirmed. Its main thesis is that a national country has the right to exist only if its borders correspond to ethnic territories.
After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, for the first time, they started talking about the need to abolish slavery, in addition, issues related to religious tolerance and freedoms were discussed.
At the same time, in fact, there is a collapse of the principle that ruled that the affairs of the subjects of the state are purely internal problems of the country. This was illustrated by the Berlin Conference on African Problems and the conventions in Brussels, Geneva and The Hague.
Versailles-Washington System of International Relations
This system was established after the end of the First World War and the regrouping of forces in the international arena. The basis of the new world order was formed by the agreements concluded as a result of the Paris and Washington summits. In January 1919, the Paris Conference began its work. Negotiations between the United States, France,Great Britain, Japan and Italy laid the “14 points” of W. Wilson. It should be noted that the Versailles part of the system was created under the influence of the political and military-strategic goals of the victorious states in the First World War. At the same time, the interests of the defeated countries and those that had just appeared on the political map of the world (Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc.) were ignored. A number of treaties authorized the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Russian, German and Ottoman empires and determined the foundations of a new world order.
Washington Conference
The Versailles Act and treaties with Germany's allies mainly concerned European states. In 1921-1922, the Washington Conference worked, which solved the problems of post-war settlement in the Far East. The United States and Japan played a significant role in the work of this congress, and the interests of England and France were also taken into account. Within the framework of the conference, a number of agreements were signed that determined the foundations of the Far Eastern subsystem. These acts constituted the second part of the new world order called the Washington System of International Relations.
The main goal of the US was to "open the doors" to Japan and China. They succeeded during the conference to achieve the elimination of the alliance between Britain and Japan. With the end of the Washington Congress, the phase of the formation of a new world order ended. Centers of power emerged and managed to develop a relatively stable system of relationships.
Basic principles and characteristics of internationalrelations
1. Strengthening the leadership of the USA, Great Britain and France in the international arena and discrimination against Germany, Russia, Turkey and Bulgaria. Dissatisfaction with the results of the war of individual victorious countries. This predetermined the possibility of revanchism.
2. US withdrawal from European politics. In fact, the course towards self-isolation was proclaimed after the failure of Wilson's "14 points" program.
3. The transformation of the United States from a debtor to European states into a major creditor. The Dawes and Young plans demonstrated the degree of dependence of other countries on the United States especially clearly.
4. The creation in 1919 of the League of Nations, which was an effective tool for supporting the Versailles-Washington system. Its founders pursued personal interests in international relations (Great Britain and France tried to secure a pre-eminent position in world politics). In general, the League of Nations lacked a mechanism for monitoring the implementation of its decisions.
5. The Versailles system of international relations was global.
Crisis of the system and its collapse
The crisis of the Washington subsystem manifested itself already in the 20s and was caused by Japan's aggressive policy towards China. In the early 1930s, Manchuria was occupied, where a puppet state was created. The League of Nations condemned the aggression of Japan, and she withdrew from this organization.
The crisis of the Versailles system predetermined the strengthening of Italy and Germany, in which the Nazis came to power andNazis. The development of the system of international relations in the 1930s showed that the security system created around the League of Nations was absolutely ineffective.
The Anschluss of Austria in March 1938 and the Munich Agreement in September of the same year became concrete manifestations of the crisis. Since that time, a chain reaction of the collapse of the system began. The year 1939 showed that the policy of appeasement was absolutely ineffective.
The Versailles-Washington system of international relations, which had many flaws and was completely unstable, collapsed with the outbreak of World War II.
The system of relations between states in the second half of the 20th century
The foundations of the new world order after the war of 1939-1945 were worked out at the Y alta and Potsdam conferences. The leaders of the countries of the Anti-Hitler coalition took part in the congresses: Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt (later Truman). In general, the Y alta-Potsdam system of international relations was bipolar, as the USA and the USSR occupied the leading position. This led to the formation of certain centers of power, which most of all influenced the nature of the international system.
Y alta Conference
The main goal of the Y alta Conference participants was to destroy German militarism and create guarantees of peace, as the discussions took place under conditions of war. At this congress, new borders of the USSR (along the Curzon line) and Poland were established. The zones of occupation in Germany were also distributed among the states of the anti-Hitler coalition. This led to the fact that the country for 45 years consisted oftwo parts - the FRG and the GDR. In addition, there was a division of spheres of influence in the Balkan region. Greece came under the control of England, the communist regime of J. B. Tito was established in Yugoslavia.
Potsdam Conference
At this congress it was decided to demilitarize and decentralize Germany. Domestic and foreign policy was under the control of the council, which included the commanders-in-chief of the four victorious states in the war. The Potsdam system of international relations was based on new principles of cooperation between European states. The Council of Foreign Ministers was created. The main result of the congress was the demand for the surrender of Japan.
Principles and characteristics of the new system
1. Bipolarity in the form of political and ideological confrontation between the "free world" led by the United States and the socialist countries.
2. confrontational nature. Systemic confrontation between the leading countries in the political, economic, military and other spheres. This confrontation came to a head during the Cold War.
3. The Y alta system of international relations had no definite legal basis.
4. The new order took shape during the period of the spread of nuclear weapons. This led to the formation of a security mechanism. The concept of nuclear deterrence has emerged, based on the fear of a new war.
5. The creation of the UN, on whose decisions the entireY alta-Potsdam system of international relations. But in the post-war period, the organization's activity was to prevent an armed conflict between the US and the USSR at the global and regional levels.
Conclusions
In modern times, there were several systems of international relations. The Westphalian system proved to be the most efficient and viable. Subsequent systems were confrontational in nature, which predetermined their rapid disintegration. The modern system of international relations is based on the principle of balance of power, which is a consequence of the individual security interests of all states.
