The 19th century was truly a golden age for England. At this time, its political and economic authority became virtually unquestioned. She managed to avoid the French revolutionary contagion because she herself was in full swing with a completely different revolution - the scientific and technological one. The industrial revolution pushed the country to a leading position in the world economy, and a fairly active foreign policy of England ensured her world domination among European states. These and many other factors not only influenced the life of the British themselves, but also set a certain vector for the development of history.
The Industrial Revolution in England in the 19th century
In order to understand why the scientific and technological revolution received the most fertile ground for its development in England, you need to delve a little into history. The fact is that England met the 19th century as the first country where conditions were created for the emergence of capitalism. The bourgeois revolution of the late 17th century gave this country a new political system - not an absolute, but a constitutional monarchy. A new bourgeoisie was admitted to power, which made it possible to direct state policy towards economic development as well. On this basis, ideas on the mechanization of human labor, and therefore, on the cheapening of labor and costproducts, of course, got the opportunity to come true. As a result, the world market was flooded with English goods, which were better and cheaper than those of those countries where manufacture still dominated.
The Great Migration
The decrease in the proportion of the peasant population and the increase in the urban population - this is how the social face of England changed in the 19th century. The beginning of the great migration was again laid by the industrial revolution. The number of plants and factories was constantly increasing, and more and more new labor forces were required. At the same time, this factor did not lead to the decline of agriculture. On the contrary, it only benefited from it. In conditions of fierce competition, small peasant farms gave way to large-scale land ownership - farming. The only survivors were those who were able to optimize their management style: use improved fertilizers, machines and farming techniques of a new type. Of course, the costs of running such a farm have become higher, but the profit due to the increase in turnover has become completely different. In this way, with the transition to capitalism in England (19th century), agriculture began to actively develop. The yield and productivity of animal husbandry in the country has overtaken many European countries by several times.
Colonial policy of the United Kingdom
Perhaps no other country had as many colonies as England in the first half of the 19th century. India, Canada, Africa, and then Australia also became a source of accumulation of its we alth. But if earlier they were simply plundered by the Englishcolonists, the 19th century is characterized by a completely different colonial policy. England begins to use the colonies as a market for its goods and a source of raw materials. For example, Australia, where there was absolutely nothing to take, England used as a huge sheep farm. India has become a source of raw materials for the cotton industry. At the same time, England flooded the colonies with its goods, blocking the possibility of developing its own production there and thereby increasing the dependence of the satellites on their island master. In general, foreign policy has been far-sighted.
Bread for the hungry
The richer England got, the more noticeable the gap between rich and poor became. Charles Dickens had a flamboyant nature for his sketches. It is difficult to say whether he exaggerated so much at all. The length of the working day was rarely less than 12-13 hours, and more often more. At the same time, wages were barely enough to make ends meet. Manufacturers very often used cheap female, and even child labor - the introduction of machines into the production of this allowed. Any workers' unions were forbidden and were perceived as rebellious. In 1819, in Manchester, in the Petersfield district, a demonstration of workers was shot. Contemporaries called this massacre the "Battle of Peterloo". But a much sharper confrontation arose between the manufacturers and the landowners. The increase in grain prices provoked an increase in the price of bread, which forced the wages of workers to increase. As a result, in parliament for many years, manufacturers and landowners pulled the rope of "grainlaws.”
Crazy King
England's political ambitions were very high. The fact that the head of state was absolutely insane did not stop them either. In 1811, George, King of England, was declared incompetent, and his eldest son effectively took over the reins of the country, becoming regent. Napoleon's military failures played into the hands of British diplomats. After his retreat from the walls of Moscow, it was England that became the organizing principle that turned all of Europe against the French leader. The Peace of Paris, signed in 1814, added a significant amount of new land to its assets. France was to give England M alta, Tobago and the Seychelles. Holland - lands in Guyana with magnificent cotton plantations, Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope. Denmark - Heligoland. And the Ionian Islands were placed under her supreme patronage. The era of the regency turned into such an increment of territories. England did not yawn at sea either. After the Great Armada, it was she who took over the title of "mistress of the seas." Its confrontation with the United States lasted two years. English ships constantly cruised through neutral waters near the continent, not even shying away from frankly robber raids. Peace was signed in 1814, which brought some peace for a while.
A time of calm and tranquility
The time in which England was ruled by William IV (1830-1837) turned out to be very fruitful for the country. Although few people believed in it - after all, by the time of accession to the throne, the king was 65 years old, a considerable age forthat time. One of the most socially significant laws was the introduction of restrictions on child labor. Virtually the entire United Kingdom of Great Britain was freed from slavery. The Poor Law has been changed. It was the most calm and peaceful period in the first half of the 19th century. There were no major wars until the Crimean War of 1853. But the most significant reform of William IV was the parliamentary reform. The old system prevented not only the workers from participating in elections, but also the new industrial bourgeoisie. The House of Commons was in the hands of merchants, we althy landowners and bankers. They were the masters of parliament. The bourgeoisie turned to the workers for help, who, hoping that they too would get a legislative seat, helped them to defend their rights. Often armed. The July Revolution of 1830 in France was another strong impetus towards solving this problem. In 1832, a parliamentary reform was carried out, thanks to which the industrial bourgeoisie received the right to vote in parliament. The workers, however, did not gain anything from this, which caused the Chartist movement in England.
Workers fight for their rights
Deceived by the promises of the bourgeoisie, the working class now turned against it. In 1835, mass demonstrations and demonstrations began again, which escalated with the onset of the crisis of 1836, when thousands of hard workers were thrown into the street. In London, the "Association of Workers" was formed, which formulated a charter for universal suffrage to be submitted to Parliament. In English, "charter" sounds like "charter", hence the name - the Chartist movement. In England, the workers demanded that they be given equal rights with the bourgeoisie and that they be allowed to put forward their own candidates for government. Their situation was getting worse and the only one who could stand up for them was themselves. The movement was divided into three camps. The London carpenter Lovett led the moderate wing, which believes that everything can be achieved peacefully through negotiations. Other Chartists contemptuously referred to this offshoot as the "Rose Water Party". The course of the physical struggle was led by the Irish lawyer O'Connor. The owner of remarkable strength, a great boxer, he led the more militant workers. But there was also a third, revolutionary wing. Garni was its leader. An admirer of Marx and Engels and the ideals of the French Revolution, he actively fought for the expropriation of land from farmers in favor of the state and for the establishment of an eight-hour working day. On the whole, the Chartist movement in England failed. However, it still had some significance: the bourgeoisie was forced to meet the workers halfway on a number of points, and laws were passed in parliament protecting the rights of workers.
19th century: England at its peak
In 1837, Queen Victoria ascended the throne. The time of her reign is considered the "golden era" of the country. The relative calm that characterized England's foreign policy made it possible to finally focus on economic development. As a result, by the middle of the 19th century, thiswas the most powerful and richest power in Europe. She could dictate her terms on the world political arena and establish connections that were beneficial to her. In 1841, the railway opened, on which the queen made the first journey. Many English people still consider the reign of Victoria the best period that the history of England knew. The 19th century, which left deep scars in many countries, turned out to be simply blessed for the island state. But perhaps even more than their political and economic successes, the British are proud of the moral character that the queen instilled in her subjects. Features of the Victorian era in England have long been the talk of the town. At this time, everything that was somehow connected with the physical side of human nature was not only hidden, but also actively condemned. Rigid moral laws demanded complete obedience, and their violation was severely punished. It even reached the point of absurdity: when an exposition of ancient statues was brought to England, they were not exhibited until all their shame was covered with fig leaves. The attitude towards women was reverent, up to complete enslavement. They were not allowed to read newspapers with political articles, they were not allowed to travel unaccompanied by men. Marriage and family were considered the greatest value, divorce or adultery was simply a criminal offense.
Imperial ambitions of the kingdom
By the middle of the 19th century, it had already become clear that the "golden era" was drawing to a close. USA andthe united Germany began to gradually raise its head, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain began to gradually lose its leading position in the world political arena. Conservative parties came to power, promoting imperialist slogans. They countered liberal values - an orientation towards social and economic development - with promises of stability, calls for moderate reforms and the preservation of traditional British institutions. Disraeli was the leader of the Conservative Party at the time. He accused the liberals of betraying the national interest. The main factor supporting the "imperialism" of England, the conservatives considered military power. Already in the middle of 1870, the term "British Empire" first appeared, Queen Victoria became known as the Empress of India. The liberals, led by W. Gladstone, focused on colonial policy. During the 19th century, England acquired so many territories that it became increasingly difficult to keep them all in one hand. Gladstone was a supporter of the Greek model of colonization, he believed that spiritual and cultural ties are much stronger than economic ones. Canada was granted a constitution, and the rest of the colonies were given much greater economic and political independence.
Time to give up the palm
Actively developing after the unification, Germany began to show unambiguous impulses to hegemony. English goods were no longer the only ones on the world market, German and American products were now no worse. In England, they came to the conclusion that it is necessary to change economic policy. Created inIn 1881, the Fair Trade League decided to reorient goods from the European market to the Asian one. The notorious colonies were supposed to help her in this. In parallel with this, the British were actively developing Africa, as well as the territories adjacent to British India. Many Asian countries - Afghanistan and Iran, for example - became almost half the colonies of England. But for the first time in many years, the island nation began to face competition in this field. For example, France, Belgium, Germany and Portugal also claimed their rights to African lands. On this basis, “jingoist” sentiments began to actively develop in the UK. The term "jingo" denoted supporters of aggressive diplomacy and forceful methods in politics. Later, extreme nationalists cherishing the ideas of imperial patriotism began to be called jingoists. They believed that the more territories England conquered, the greater its power and authority would be.
The 19th century can rightly be called the century of England in world history. No wonder she received the title "workshop of the world." There were more English goods on the market than any other. They were cheap and boasted excellent quality. The scientific and technological revolution in England gave the richest fruits, which became possible due to the fact that in this country, earlier than in all others, they abandoned the absolute monarchy. The new forces in the legislature brought very positive results. The increased aggressive appetites of the country provided it with a large number of newterritories, which, of course, in addition to we alth, brought many problems. Nevertheless, by the end of the 19th century, England became one of the most powerful states, which subsequently allowed her to continue to cut the map of the world and decide the fate of history.
